Literature

Alexander, C. P.; Vane-Wright, R. I.
Two aberrant species of Holorusia Loew (Diptera: Tipulidae).
JJ Entomol.Ser. B. Taxon. 1972, 41: 107-17

Alexander, C. P.
The crane-flies of New York. Pt. 2. Biology and phylogeny.
Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Mem.1920, 38: 691-1133.

Alexander, C. P.
The crane-flies of New York. Pt. 1. Distribution and taxonomy of the adult flies.
Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn. Mem. 1919, 25: 765-993.

Alexander, C. P.; Byers, G. W.
Tipulidae.
In Manual of Nearctic Diptera, ed. J. F. McAlpine, B. V. Peterson, G. E. Shewell, H. J. Teskey, J. R. Vockeroth, D. M. Wood. 1981, 1: 153-90. Hull, Quebec:Agric. Canada.

Alma, P J.
Parasitization of Tipula spp. (Diptera, Tipulidae) by Siphona geniculata (Degeer) (Diptera, Tachinidae).
Entomol Mon Mag 111, no. 1331/1333 (APR/JUNE 1975 (PUB. 1976)): 105-107.

Alma, P J.
A population study and light-trap captures of Tipula pagana Meigen (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Entomol Mon Mag 109, no. 1313/1315 (OCT/DEC 1973 (PUB. 1974)): 240-246.

Anderson, S.
Revision of European species of Siphona Meigen (Diptera: Tachinidae) Possible biological control agent for Tipula and other crop pests, includes new taxa.
Entomologica scandinavica. 1982. v. 13(2): p. 149-172.

Antonelli, A.L.; Stahnke, G.K.
European Crane Fly- Management History and Loss of Dursban- What do we do now?
Proceedings of the 5th PNW Pesticide Issues Conference: Home and Garden Pesticide Use and Users October 19, 2000 Wash. State Univ. Coop. Ext.

Antonelli,-A.L.; Campbell,-R.L.
The European crane fly: a lawn and pasture pest.
Ext-bull-Wash-State-Univ,-Coop-Ext. Pullman, Wash. : The Extension,. Aug 1994.

Antonelli, A.
European crane fly in Washington: history, biology, and control efforts Tipula paludosa.
p. 637-638. Publishing Agencies: US Imprint, not USDA Proceedings - Washington State Entomological Society. Pullman : The Society. Apr/Nov 1982. (44)

Antonelli, A.L. ; Campbell, R.L.
Insect answers: The European crane fly Tipula paludosa: a lawn pest.
2 p. ill. Publishing Agencies: Extension Service Washington State University. Cooperative Extension Service. E.M. Pullman, Wash., The Service. May 1979. (3478)

Alexander, C P.
Previously unpublished comments on the use of the plenary powers to stabilise the names of the North European species belonging to the Tipula oleracae group within the genus Tipula Linnaeus, 1758 (Insecta, Diptera).
Bull Zool Nomencl 31, no. 1 (JULY 31, 1974): 5-8.

Baccetti, B.
Ultrastructure of sperm and its bearing on arthropod phylogeny.
In Arthropod Phylogeny, ed. A.P. Gupta. 1979, pp. 609-44. New York: van Nostrand Reinhold.

Barbash-NM
Improving techniques of rearing Tipula paludosa MG. (Dipt., Tipulidae) in the laboratory.
Entomologist's-Monthly-Magazine. 1990, 126: 1512-1515, 119-120; 2 ref.
A new method for rearing Tipula paludosa is described which enables thousands of larvae to be produced with 2 generations in a year.

Beesley, J E.
Seasonal abundance of three life cycle stages of Rasajeyna nannyla (Coccidia) in Tipula paludosa and Tipula vittata.
J Invertabr Pathol 31, no. 2 (MAR 1978): 255-259. Publishing Agencies: US Imprint, not USDA

Beesley, J E.
The life cycle of Rasanjeyna nannyla N. Ben, N. sp., A Coccidian pathogen of Tipula paludosa Meigen.
Parasitology 74, no. 3 (JUNE 1977): 273-283.

Binns, E S.
Post emergence aggregation and mating in Tipula paludosa MG. (Diptera, Tipulidae).
Entomol Mon Mag 111, no. 1331/1333 (APR/JUNE 1975 (PUB. 1976)): 93-96.

Blackshaw-RP; Coll-C
Economically important leatherjackets of grassland and cereals: biology, impact and control.
Integrated-Pest-Management-Reviews. 1999, 4: 2, 143-160; 5 pp. of ref.
Despite the large number of cranefly species, only 2 have been convincingly associated with crop damage. The larvae of Tipula paludosa are commonly found as pests in both grassland and spring cereals whereas those of T. oleracea are only established as pests of winter cereals following crops of oilseed rape in the rotation. The latter, however, is probably the species involved in opportunistic situations involving various minor crops. These epidemiological contrasts are attributable to differences in the morphology and behaviour of the adults of the 2 species in relation to crop rotations. Larvae are sufficiently similar as to cause confusion in identification and this has hampered development of a clear picture of the ecology of the 2 species. Little is known about the distribution of T. oleracea larvae, but T. paludosa larvae are largely regulated by climatic factors, especially rainfall, although the operation of these varies across the distribution range. Many natural enemies have been identified but a commercially viable control method using them has not yet been developed for either species. Control of T. paludosa is relatively easy using broad-spectrum insecticides but inconsistent kills have been observed with winter pesticide applications against T. oleracea. Determination of those fields requiring applications in advance of the damage remains the major problem, especially in grassland and winter cereals, to be resolved for the management of leatherjacket pests.

Blackshaw-RP; Thomas-MB (ed.); Kedwards-T
Behaviour mediated population regulation?
Challenges in applied population biology, Royal Holloway, University of London, UK, 8-9 July 1999. Aspects-of-Applied-Biology. 1999, No. 53, 125-130; 14 ref.
Populations of Tipula paludosa larvae are assumed to be regulated by a shortage of rainfall causing dessication of eggs and first instars. The evidence for this was examined and it was concluded that this hypothesis does not explain all the published data. Experimental data are presented that show that larvae will move in response to changes in moisture and temperature and select particular ranges. Cannibalism is a feature of T. paludosa biology and it is proposed that outcomes of encounters between larvae depend upon the type of behaviour - aggression, passive, retreating - displayed because not all encounters are fatal. The evidence is summarized and it is postulated that some apparently density-independent effects on populations result from a combination of larval movement and behaviour and hence are, ultimately, density dependent.

Blackshaw-RP; Coll-C; Humphreys-IC; Stewart-RM
The epidemiology of a new leatherjacket pest (Tipula oleracea) of winter cereals in northern Britain.
HGCA-Project-Report. 1996, No. 120, 119 pp.; 7 pp. of ref.
A study of protein bands indicated that Tipula oleracea (rather than T. paludosa) was responsible for autumn damage to cereals in northern Britain during outbreaks in the mid-1980s. A survey showed that 84% of the damaged cereal crops had been preceded by a winter oilseed rape crop. In a comparison of sampling methods, brine flotation was found to be the most effective and easiest to use in arable crops later in the season, although unreliable on newly cultivated soil. Samples collected from winter oilseed rape and nearby fields of winter wheat yielded larvae in 20% of rape fields, but none in wheat in November. In spring, larvae were found in wheat, but more were found in rape fields. By September they were detectable in 73% of rape fields. Laboratory studies showed that larvae of T. oleracea could survive on oilseed rape and grew faster on rape than on wheat. Field experiments showed that the closed rape canopy at the time of the first flight period of the tipulid (May/June) impeded vertical movement of the adults but not horizontal movements. It is concluded that the introduction of oilseed rape into arable rotations has created this pest problem in winter wheat. Sampling rape stubble before cultivation for sowing wheat is recommended.

Blackshaw,-R.P.; Stewart,-R.M.; Humphreys,-I.C.; Coll,-C.
Preventing leatherjacket damage to cereals.
Asp-appl-biol. Wellesbourne, Warwick : The Association of Applied Biologists. 1994. (37) p. 189-196.

Blackshaw,-R.P.
Sampling for leatherjackets in grassland.
Asp-appl-biol. Wellesbourne, Warwick : The Association of Applied Biologists. 1994. (37) p. 95-102.

Blackshaw-RP
Leatherjackets in grassland.
Strategies for weed, disease & pest control in grassland: practical implications of recent developments and future trends. Proceedings of the British Grassland Society conference held on 27 February 1991 at Hatherley Manor Hotel, Gloucester. 1991, 6.1-6.12; 40 ref.
The biology and ecology of the tipulid pests of grassland are considered in relation to their pest status in the UK. There are 5 main tipulid species (all Tipula spp.) in the UK, of which only T. paludosa and T. oleracea are recognised pests, with T. paludosa being the most important. Climatic conditions are more important to population regulation than the effects of natural enemies, but the way in which they operate varies by region. Damage to grassland starts in September and builds up over the winter and spring. Insidious losses are more important than sward destruction. Good control is easily obtained with insecticides, with minimal effect on nontarget organisms, but identification of fields that could benefit from treatment remains a problem.

Blackshaw, R.P.
Observations on the distribution of leatherjackets in Northern Ireland.
Annals of applied biology. 116, no. 1 (Feb 1990): p. 21-26. ill.

Blackshaw, R.P.
Effects of cultivations and previous cropping on leatherjacket populations in spring barley.
Research and development in agriculture. 5, no. 1 (1988): p. 35-37.

Blackshaw, R.P.
Studies on the estimation of sampling error for leatherjackets (Tipula spp.) in grassland.
Grass and forage science : the journal of the British Grassland Society. 42, no. 4 (Dec 1987): p. 347-351.

Blackshaw, R.P. ; Newbold, J.W.
Interactions between fertilizer use and leatherjacket control in grassland.
Grass and forage science : the journal of the British Grassland Society. 42, no. 4 (Dec 1987): p. 343-346.

Blackshaw,-R.P.
The use of water traps for cranefly monitoring: an assessment of operator efficiency.
Ann-Appl-Biol. Warwick : Association of Applied Biologists. Apr 1987. v. 110 (2) p. 239-245.

Blackshaw, R.P.
Resolving economic decisions for the simultaneous control of two pests, diseases or weeds.
Crop protection. 5, no. 2 (Apr 1986): p. 93-99.

Blackshaw,-R.P.
A preliminary comparison of some management options for reducing grass losses caused by leatherjackets in Northern Ireland.
Ann-Appl-Biol. London : Association of Applied Biologists. Oct 1985. v. 107 (2) p. 279-285. ill.

Blackshaw,-R.P.; Moore,-J.P.
Morphological determination of leatherjacket (Tipula paludosa) instars (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Rec-Agric-Res. Belfast : Dept. of Agriculture for Northern Ireland. 1984. v. 32 p. 87-89. ill.

Blackshaw, R.P.
The impact of low numbers of leatherjackets on grass yield.
Grass and forage science. 39, no. 4 (Dec 1984): p. 339-343.

Blackshaw, R.P.
Some factors influencing variability in water-trap catches of Tipula spp. (Diptera:Tipulidae) [Spring-sown cereals, United Kingdom].
p. 693-699. Publishing Agencies: Non-US Imprint, not FAO Bulletin of entomological research. London : Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux. Dec 1983. v. 73 (4) ISSN: 0007-4853

Blasdale, P.
A Method of turf sampling and extraction of leatherjackets (Tipula paludosa).
Plant Pathol 23, no. 1 (MAR 1974): 14-16.

Brindle, A.
The ecological significance of the anal papillae of Tipula larvae (Dipt., Tipulidae).
Entomol. Mon. Mag. 1956, 93: 202-4.

Brittain, J. E.; Lillehammer, A.
The fauna of the exposed zone of Ovre Heimdalsvatn: Methods, sampling stations and general results.
Holarct. Ecol. 1978, 1: 221-28.

Brodo, F.
A review of the subfamily Cylindrotominae in North America (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Univ Kans. Sd. Bull. 1967, 47: 71-115.

Brownbridge-M; Selman-BJ
Improvements in rearing laboratory cultures of leatherjackets (Tipula spp.) (Dipt., Tipulidae).
Entomologist's-Monthly-Magazine. 1989, 125: 1500-1503, 123-127; 5 ref.
Methods of handling and rearing Tipula paludosa and T. oleracea in the laboratory are outlined. Usually over 50% of larvae survived to adulthood, the greatest levels of mortality occurring in the quiescent late 4th instar and during pupation.

Butterfield, J.
The response of development rate to temperature in the univoltine cranefly,Tipula subnodicornis Zetterstedt.
Oecologia 1976, 25: 89-100.

Butterfield, J.
Effect of photoperiod on a winter and on a summer diapause in two species of cranefly (Tipulidae).
J. Insect Physiol. 1976, 22: 1443-46.

Butterfield, J. E. L. 1973.
Biological studies on a number of moorland Tipulidae.
PhD thesis. Univ. Durham, Durham, U.K. 159 pp.

Buxton, P. A.
Resemblance between a pholcid spider, a tipulid, and a reduviid in Samoa.
Proc. Entomol. Soc. London. 1927, 2: 65-66.

Byers, G. W.
The crane fly genus Dolichopeza in North America.
Univ. Kans. Sci. Bull. 1961, 42: 665-924.

Byers, G. W.
Evolution of wing reduction in crane flies (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Evolution. 1969, 23: 346-54.

Byers, G. W.
The crane fly genus Chionea in North America.
Univ. Kans. Sci. Bull. 1983, 52: 59-195.

Campbell, R.L.
European crane fly control in Washington, 1979 Tipula paludosa, bentgrasses.
p. 189. Publishing Agencies: US Imprint, not USDA Insecticide and acaricide tests. College Park : Entomological Society of America. 1980. v. 5

Campbell, R L.
Insecticidal control of European crane fly (Tipula paludosa) in Washington [Pest of turf and forages].
J Econ Entomol68, no. 3 (JUNE 16, L975): 386-388.

Caspers, N.
Zur Larvalentwicklung und Produktionsökologie von Tipula maxima Poda (Diptera, Nematocera, Tipulidae).
Arch. Hydrobiol. 1980, 58: 273-309.

Carter,-J.B.; Green,-E.I.; Kirkham,-A.J.
A Tipula paludosa population with high incidence of two pathogens [Nuclear polyhedrosis virus, iridescent virus].
J-Invertebr-Pathol. New York, N.Y. : Academic Press. Nov 1983. v. 42 (3) p. 312-318. ill.

Carter, J.B. ; Griffiths, C. ; Smith, A.D.
A high level of parasitism by Siphona Geniculata (De Geer) (Diptera: Tachinidae) in a population of Tipula paludosa (Meigen) (Diptera: Tipulidae) England.
p. 257-258. Publishing Agencies: Non-US Imprint, not FAO Entomologist's gazette. Faringdon, Oxon, E. W. Classey. 1981. v. 32 (4) ISSN: 0013-8894

Carter, J B.
Introduction of Tipula iridescent virus infection into wild populations of Tipula spp. larvae [insect pests, biological control].
In Proceedings of the International Colloquium on Invertebrate Pathology Pagination: 1ST: 336-337. 1976

Carter, J B.
A microsporidan infecting the nerve ganglia of Tipula paludosa larvae.
J Invertebr Pathol 27, no. 3 (MAY 1976): 409-410.

Carter, J B.
The effect of temperature upon Tipula iridescent virus infection in Tipula oleracae.
J Invertebrate Pathol 25, no. 1 (JAN 1975): 115-124.

Carter, J B.
The potential of parasites of tipula spp. as biological control agents and field trials with Tipula iridescent virus [pest of grassland and cereals].
Proc Br Insectic Fungic Conf 8TH, no. V. 1 (1975): 261-266.

Carter, J B.
TIPULA IRIDESCENT VIRUS INFECTION IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES OF Tipula oleracae.
J Invertebrate Pathol 24, no. 3 (NOV 1974): 271-281.

Carter, J B.
The mode of transmission of Tipula iridenscent virus. I. source of infection. [Tipula oleracae]
J Invertebrate Pathol 21, no. 2 (MAR 1973): 123-130.

Carter, J B.
The mode of transmission of Tipula iridescent virus. II. Route of infection. [Tipula oleracae].
J Invertebrate Pathol 21, no. 2 (MAR 1973): 136-143.

Chard,-J.M.; McKinlay,-R.G.; Baty,-J.
Observations on the effects of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis on crane fly larvae.
Aspects-Appl-Biol. Wellesbourne, Warwick : The Association of Applied Biologists. 1990. (24) p. 277-278.

Chard-JM; McKinlay-RG; Baty-J
Observations on the effects of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis on crane fly larvae [Tipula paludosa].
The exploitation of micro-organisms in applied biology. Aspects-of-Applied-Biology. 1990, 24: 277-278; 4 ref.

Cheshire, M.V.; Griffiths, B.S.
The influence of earthworms and cranefly larvae on the decomposition of uniformly 14C labelled plant material in soil.
The Journal of soil science. 40, no. 1 (Mar 1989): p. 117-124.

Chiswell, J. R.
A taxonomic account of the last instar larvae of some British Tipulinae (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Trans. R. Entornol. Soc. London. 1956, 108: 409-84.

Clement, L. E.
The ecology of Tipula carirufrons Holm. (Diptera, Tipulidae) in the arctic coastal tundra of northern Alaska.
MS thesis. Univ. Alaska, Fairbanks. 1975, 96 pp.

Clements, R.O. ; Bale, J.S.
The short-term effects on birds and mammals of the use of chlorpyrifos to control leatherjackets in grassland.
Annals of applied biology. 112, no. 1 (Feb 1988): p. 41-47.

Coll-C; Blackshaw-RP; Clarke-JH (ed.); Davies-DHK (ed.); Dampney-P-MR (ed.); Froud-Williams-RJ (ed.); Griffith-PJ (ed.); Lane-A (ed.); Sim-L (ed.); Stevens-DB
Leatherjackets in winter cereals: a self-inflicted problem?
Rotations and cropping systems, 16-18 December 1996, Churchill College, Cambridge, UK. Aspects-of-Applied-Biology. 1996, No. 47, 145-151; 8 ref.
Large, local aggregations of Tipula oleracea larvae were found damaging winter cereal crops from October onwards in NE Scotland, UK. Results from field surveys established that cereal crops following oilseed rape in the rotation were most at risk. Larvae were found overwintering in oilseed rape crops and in crops which followed oilseed rape in the rotation, but not in fields which had not included oilseed rape as part of the rotation. Data collected from emergence traps showed that overwintering larvae emerged as adults in early summer. It was shown that adult flies could not escape from the canopy of the oilseed rape once flowering was complete. Flies trapped beneath the canopy could continue to mate and oviposit underneath the crop canopy and consequently, this could lead to the appearance of large, local aggregations which partly explains the presence of significant populations of larvae in following crops of winter cereals.

Coulson, J. C.
The biology of Tzpula subnodicornis Zetterstedt, with comparative observations on Tipula paludosa Meigen.
J. Anim. Ecol. 1962, 31: 1-21.

Coulson, J. C.
Observations on the Tipulidae (Diptera) of the Moor House Nature Reserve, Westmorland.
Trans. R. Entomol. Soc. London. 1959, 111: 157-74.

Coulson, J. C.; Horobin, J.; Butterfield, J.; Smith, G. R. J.
The maintenance of annual life cycles in two species of Tipulidae (Diptera); a field study relating development, temperature and altitude.
J. Anim. Ecol. 1976, 45: 215-33.

Crisp, G.; Lloyd, L. 1954.
The community of insects in a patch of woodland mud.
Trans. R. Entomol. Soc. London. 1954, 105: 269-313.

Cummins, K. W.; Klug, M. J.
Feeding ecology of stream invertebrates.
Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 1979, 10: 147-72.

Custer, T. W.; Pitelka, F. A.
Seasonal trends in summer diet of the lap-land longspur near Barrow, Alaska.
Condor. 1978, 80: 295-301.

Cuthbertson, A.
The mating habits and oviposition of crane-flies.
Entomol. Mon. Mag. 1929, 65: 141-45.

Dahl, C.
Comparison of postembryonic organization of the genital segments in Trichoceridae, Tipulidae, and Anisopodidae (Diptera, Nematocera).
Zool. Sci. 1980, 9: 165-86.

Dales, R. P.
A simple trap for tipulids (Dipt.).
Entomol. Mon. Mag.1953. 89:304.

Damgaard-PH; Abdel-Hameed-A; Eilenberg-J; Smits-PH
Natural occurrence of Bacillus thuringiensis on grass foliage.
World-Journal-of-Microbiology-and-Biotechnology. 1998, 14: 2, 239-242; 28 ref.
Bacillus thuringiensis isolates were naturally present on the phylloplane of grass foliage collected from a pasture field at Wageningen, Netherlands. Characterization of 32 isolates from foliage showed that 75% belonged to serovar israelensis (H-14). A few other serovars were also found (indiana, japonensis, nigeriensis and pakistani). In toxicity tests, 84% of the isolates showed larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti, whereas no activity against Pieris brassicae was detected in any of the isolates. Activity against Tipula oleracea was documented for a few isolates of serovar israelensis.

Deblois, R W. ; Uzgiris, E E. ; Cluxton, D H. ; Mazzone, H M.
Comparative measurements of size and polydispersity of several insect viruses [Tipula iridescent virus, of Tipula paludosa, nuclear polyhedrosis viruses of neodiprion sertifer, and lymantria dispar].
Anal Biochem 90, no. 1 (OCT 1, 1978): 273-288. REF. Publishing Agencies: USDA

de Meijere, J. C. H.
Ueber die Prothorakalstigmen der Dipterenpuppen.
Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Syst. Oekol. Geogr. Tiere. 1902, 15: 623-92.

den Hollander, J.
The growth of larvae of Tioula oleracea Linnaeus, 1758 (Diptera, Tipulidae).
Tijdschr. Entomol. 1975, 118: 67-82.

den Hollander, J.
The phenology and habitat of the species of the subgenus Tipula Linnaeus in the Netherlands (Diptera, Tipulidae).
Tijdschr. Entomol. 1975, 118: 83-97.

Dobson, R. M.
Observations on the spatial distribution of flying Tipulinae (Diptera: Tipulidae) in Scotland.
J. Anim. Ecol. 1974, 43: 513-19.

Downes, J. A.
Notes on the organs and processes of sperm-transfer in the lower Diptera.
Can. Entomol. 1968, 100: 606-16.

Dunnet, G. M.
The autumn and winter mortality of starlings Sturnus vulgaris, in relation to their food supply.
Ibis. 1956, 98: 220-30.

Edwards, J. S.
Insect fallout on the Gulkana Glacier, Alaska Range.
Can. Entomol. 1970, 102: 1169-70.

Ehlers-RU; Wulff-A; Peters-A
Pathogenicity of axenic Steinernema feltiae, Xenorhabdus bovienii, and the bacto-helminthic complex to larvae of Tipula oleracea (Diptera) and Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera).
Journal-of-Invertebrate-Pathology. 1997, 69: 3, 212-217; 37 ref.
The bacto-helminthic complex of Steinernema feltiae and Xenorhabdus bovienii was injected into 4th-instar larval Tipula oleracea and Galleria mellonella, to assess its pathogenicity in comparison to axenic nematodes and bacteria alone. The number of colony-forming units (CFU) per larva were counted after 48 h to assess LC50. Monoxenic nematodes were more pathogenic than axenic nematodes in both insects. The LC50 of X. bovienii alone was considerably higher in T. oleracea (15,700 CFU/larva) than in G. mellonella (_8 CFU/larva). It is concluded that the nematode-bacterium complex has a synergistic effect, being more virulent than the additive effect of both symbionts administered separately.

Feldmann, F. ; Dullemans, A. ; Waalwuk, C.
Binding of the CryIVD toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis to larval dipteran midgut proteins.
Applied and environmental microbiology. 61, no. 7 (July 1995): p. 2601-2605.
Ligand-blotting experiments on dipteran brush border membrane vesicles (BBMVs) showed binding of CryIVD toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis to proteins of 148 kDa in Anopheles stephensi and of 78 kDa in Tipula oleracea, both species being susceptible to CryIVD. Binding of CryIVD with BBMVs of A. stephensi resulted in a stronger signal than with BBMVs of T. oleracea. Likewise, larvae of A. stephensi are 10,000-fold more susceptible to the CryIVD toxin than are larvae of T. oleracea. Binding was also found with six proteins ranging in size from 48 to 110 kDa in BBMVs from the lepidopteran species Manduca sexta, but CryIVD was not toxic for M. sexta larvae. No binding of trypsinated CryIVD to BBMV proteins was observed. With the lepidopteran-specific toxin CryIA(b), no binding to dipteran BBMVs was found. Binding of CryIA(b) to nine different BBMV proteins ranging in size from 71 to 240 kDa was observed in M. sexta. The major binding signal was observed with a protein of 240 kDa for CryIA(b).

Finney J.R., Bennett G.F.
Heterorhabditis heliothidis: A potential biocontrol agent of agricultural and forest pests in Newfoundland
Journal of Agricultural Entomology. 1984, 1:(3) 287-295.
Abstract:During a laboratory study in Newfoundland, Canada, 2 species each of Homoptera (Aphis craccae and a cercopid), Coleoptera (a species of Agriotes and Chrysomela falsa) and Diptera (Tipula paludosa and Delia radicum) and 8 species of Lepidoptera (Artogeia rapae, Evergestis pallidata, Croesia curvalana, Harpipteryx xylostella [Ypsolopha dentella], Coleophora serratella, Leucoma salicis, Lambdina fiscellaria fiscellaria and an unidentified privet leaf-roller), all of which were taken from plants of agricultural importance or forest trees, were exposed to infection by Heterorhabditis heliothidis at 24°C. Substantial larval mortality was obtained 48-72 h after exposure in most cases; pupae and adults were also killed. The effects on the individual pests are described.

Forer, A.
Cranefly spermatocytes and spermatids, a system for studying cytoskeletal components.
Methods Cell Biol. 1982, 24: 227-52.

Freeman, B. E.; Adams, C. A.
The spatial and temporal distribution of adult Tipulidae (Diptera) at Hothfield Heath, Kent.
J. Anim. Ecol. 1972, 41: 537-51.

Freeman, B. E.
Studies on the ecology of adult Tipulidae (Diptera) in southern England.
J. Anim. Ecol. 1968, 37: 339-62.

Freeman, B. E.
Studies on the ecology of larval Tipulinae (Diptera, Tipulidae).
J. Anim. Ecol. 1967, 36: 123-46.

Freeman, B. E.
A population study of Tipula species (Diptera, Tipulidae).
J. Anim. Ecol. 1964, 33: 129-40.

French, N. ; Nichols, D.B.R. ; Wright, A.J.
Yield response of improved upland pasture to the control of leatherjackets under increasing rates of nitrogen.
Grass and forage science : the journal of the British Grassland Society. 45, no. 1 (Mar 1990): p. 99-102.

Gatter, W.
Migration of the cranefly Tipula oleracea L.: passive wind-drifting or determined migration?
p. 81-89. ill. Nachrichtenblatt der Bayerischen Entomologen. Munchen, Munchner Entomologische Gesellschaft. Oct 15, 1977. v. 26 (5)

Gelhaus, J.K.
Larvae of the crane fly genus Tipula in North America (Diptera: Tipulidae)
University of Kansas science bulletin. 53, no. 3 (June 20, 1986): p. 121-182. ill.

Gerritsen L.J.M., Wiegers G.L., Smits P.H.
Pathogenicity of new combinations of Heterorhabditis spp. and Photorhabdus luminescens against Galleria mellonella and Tipula oleracea
Biological Control. 1998 13:(1) 9-15.
Photorhabdus luminescens isolates were exchanged between four entomopathogenic nematode strains; two isolates of Heterorhabditis megidis from The Netherlands and two isolates of H. bacteriophora, one from Australia and one from Moldavia. When cultured on H. megidis symbionts only few H. bacteriophora infective juveniles retained the symbiotic bacterium. These infective juveniles, without symbiotic bacteria, were not pathogenic to insects. When P. luminescens was injected into insect larvae it could kill Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Galleridae) larvae but it was not pathogenic to Tipula oleracea (Diptera: Tipulidae). The combination of nematode and bacterium killed T. oleracea, showing that the nematode is more than just a vector for the bacterium. Small differences in pathogenicity between the combinations could only be observed in T. oleracea, not in the highly susceptible G. mellonella. The pathogenicity of a combination depends on the pathogenicity of the bacterium, the pathogenicity of the nematode and the interaction between them. The pathogenicity of H. bacteriophora strains against T. oleracea was low, partly because of the low penetration rate of these strains.

Gerritsen L.J.M., Smits P.H.
Pathogenicity of new combinations of Heterorhabditis spp. and Photorhabdus luminescens (Xenorhabdus luminescens) against Galleria mellonella and Tipula oleracea
Bulletin of the International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control of Noxious Animals and Plants. 1994 17:(3) 56-60.
The pathogenicity of new combinations of Heterorhabditis spp. and Xenorhabdus luminescens was tested against a susceptible host Galleria mellonella and a more resistant host Tipula oleracea in the laboratory at 25°C. Nematodes of the north-west European group were not able to grow and multiply with H. bacteriophora bacteria. H. bacteriophora nematodes without bacteria did not kill insect larvae. The pathogenicity of H. bacteriophora strains against T. oleracea was low, probably because of the low penetration rate of these strains. The pathogenicity of a combination was determined by the pathogenicity of the bacterium, that of the nematode and by the interaction between them.

Ghilarov, M. S.; Semenova, L. M.
Die Kutikel Penneabilität bodenwohender Tipuliden-Larven.
Z. Pflanzenkr. 1957, 64: 522-28.

Goix, J.
Tipula paludosa, pest of crops.
p. 5-7. ill. Publishing Agencies: Non-US Imprint, not FAO Phytoma. Paris, Editions Le Carrousel. Dec 1980. (323) ISSN: 0048-4091

Goss,-R.L.; Antonelli,-A.; Brauen,-S.E.
Control of European crane fly in Washington, USA.
J-Sports-Turf-Res-Inst. Bingley, Yorkshire, Eng. : The Institute. June 1986. v. 62 p. 133-137.

Green, E.I. ; Carter, J.B.
Increased hemocyte counts in Tipula paludosa (Diptera, Tipulidae) hemolymph after exposure of larvae to diethyl ether and acetic acid vapors.
Journal of invertebrate pathology. 57, no. 3 (May 1991): p. 437-438.

Griffiths,-C.; Carter,-J.B.; Overend,-J.
Phaonia signata (Meigen) (Diptera:Muscidae) larvae predatory upon leatherjackets, Tipula paludosa (Meigen) (Diptera:Tipulidae) larvae.
Entomol-Gaz. Faringdon : E. W. Classey. 1984. v. 35 (1) p. 53-55. ill.

GUEGAN, J.
Human intestinal myiasis provoked by the Tipula paludosa larvae Meigen, 1930 (Diptera, Tipulidae) in Vendee.
Ann Parasitol Hum Comp 45, no. 2 (MAR/APR 1970): 243-246.

Guelpa, B. ; Bergoin, M. ; Croizier, G.
Characterization of Tipula paludosa baculovirus polyhedron protein and virus structural proteins.
C R Hebd Seances Acad Sci, Ser D Sci Nat 284, no. 9 (FEB 28, 1977): 779-782. REF. ENG. SUM.

Hadley, M.
The adult biology of the crane-fly Molophilus ater Meigen.
J. Anim. Ecol. 1969, 38: 765-90.

Hadley, M.
Aspects of the larval ecology and population dynamics of Molophilus ater Meigen (Diptera:Tipulidae) on Pennine moorland.
J. Anim. Ecol. 1971, 40: 445-66.

Hadley, M.
Pupation and fecundity of Molophilus ater Meigen (Diptera: Tipulidae) in relation to larval weight.
Oecologia. 1971, 7: 164-69.

Hagvar, S.
Phenology of egg development and egg-laying in a winter-active insect, Chionea araneoides Dalm. (Dipt., Tipulidae).
Norw. J. Entomol. 1976, 23: 193-95.

Hagvar, S.
Winter-active insects enclosed by ice from supercooled rain.
Norw. J. Entomol. 1976, 23: 204.

Hall, H. A., Pritchard, G.
The food of larvae of Tipula sacra Alexander in a series of abandoned beaver ponds (Diptera: Tipulidae).
J. Anim. Ecol. 1975, 44: 55-66.

Hartman, M. J.; Hynes, C. D.
Enviromental factors influencing hatching of Tipula simplex eggs (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Pan-Pac. Entomol. 1980, 56: 268-72.

Hartman, M. J., Hynes, C. D.
Embryonic diapause in Tipu!a simplex and the action of photoperiod in its termination (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Pan-Pac. Entomol. 1980, 56: 207-12.

Hartman, M. J.; Hynes, C. D.
Biology of the range crane fly, Tipula simplex Doane.
Pan-Pac. Entomol. 1977, 53: 118-23.

Hemmingsen, A. M.
The oviposition of some crane-fly species (Tipulidae) from different types of localities.
Vidensk Medd. Dan. Naturhist. Foren. Khobenhavn. 1952, 114: 365-430.

Hemmingsen, A. M.; Jensen, B.
The occurrence of Tipula (Vestiplex) arctica in Greenland.
Medd. Groenland. 1957, 159: 1-20.

Hemmingsen, A. M., Theisen, B. F.
The inheritance of terminal egg-filaments in fertile hybrids of Tipula paludosa Meigen and Tipula czizeki de Jong.
Vidensk Medd. Dan. Naturhist. Foren. Khobenhavn. 1956. 118:15-32.

Hennig, W.
Die Larvenformen der Dipteren, Arb. 2
Berlin: Akad. Verlag. 1950.

Hinton, H. E.
Respiratory adaptations of marine insects.
In Marine Insects, ed. L. Cheng. 1976, pp.
43-78. Amsterdam: North-Holland.

Hinton, H. E.
Spiracular gills.
Adv. Insect Physiol. 1968, 5: 65-160.

Hinton, H. E.
The spiracular gill of the fly Orimargula australiensis and its relation to those of other insects.
Aust. J. Zool. 1965, 13: 783-800.

Hinton, H. E.
On the structure and function of the respiratory horn of the pupa of the genus Pseudolimnophila (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Proc. R. Entomol. Soc. London Ser. A 1954, 29: 135-40.

Hofsvang, T.
Energy flow in Tipula excisa Schum. (Diptera, Tipulidae) in a high mountain area, Finse, south Norway.
Norw. J. Entomol. 1973, 21: 7-16.

Hofsvang, T. 1972.
Tipula excisa Schum. (Diptera, Tipulidae), life cycle and population dynamics.
Norw. J. Entomol. 1972, 19: 43-48.

Hofsvang, T.
The species of the subgenus Tipula L. (Diptera, Tipulidae) in Norway Tipula (Tipula) czizek, Tipula (Tipula) paludosa, crop pests.
p. 93-95. maps. Publishing Agencies: Non-US Imprint, not FAO Norwegian journal of entomology. Oslo, Norsk Zoologisk Tidsskriftsentral. 1981. v. 28 (2) ISSN: 0332-7698

Hollander, J Den
The growth of larvae of Tipula oleracea Linnaeus, 1758 (DIPTERA, TIPULIDAE).
TIJDSCHR ENTOMOL 118, no. 3/4 (1975): 67-82. REF.

Hollander, J Den.
The phenology and habitat of the species of the subgenus Tipula Linnaeus in the Netherlands (Diptera, Tipulidae)
Tijdscr Entomol 118, no. 3/4 (1975): 83-97.

Holmes, R. T., Pitelka, F. A. 1968.
Food overlap among coexisting sand-pipers on northern Alaskan tundra.
Syst. Zool. 1968, 17: 305-18.

Hopkins, A. ; Gilbey, J.
Effects of agrochemical treatments on the yield and botanical composition of pest damaged white clover swards.
Tests of agrochemicals and cultivars. 8 (Apr 1987): p. 124-125.

Horobin, J. C.
Studies on the biology of moorland Tipulidae with particular reftrence to Molophilus ater Meigen.
PhD thesis. Univ. Durham, Durham, U.K. 1971, 216 pp.

Houlihan, D. F.
The structure and behaviour of Notiphila riparia and Erioptera squalida, two root piercing insects.
J. Zool. 1969, 159: 249-67.

Houston, W. W. K.
The food of the common frog, Rana temporaria, on high moorland in northern England.
J. Zool. 1973, 171: 153-65.

Hukuhara, T. ; Shinkai, T.
Structure of aggregates of Tipula (paludosa) iridescent virus and polystyrene latex particles.
J Invertebr Pathol 32, no. 1 (JULY 1978): 97-102. Publishing Agencies: US Imprint, not USDA

Humphreys-IC; Blackshaw-RP; Stewart-RM; Coll-C
Differentiation between larvae of Tipula paludosa and Tipula oleracea (Diptera: Tipulidae) using isoelectric focusing, and their occurrence in grassland in northern Britain.
Annals-of-Applied-Biology. 1993, 122: 1, 1-8; 19 ref.
Thin layer agarose isoelectric focusing (IEF) was used to separate proteins from the larvae of Tipula oleracea and T. paludosa. Silver staining revealed protein banding patterns which consistently distinguished these 2 species at any stage in their life cycles. Within the pH range 5-6, T. paludosa contained 1 major protein band and T. oleracea 2, with the pI value of the T. paludosa protein being slightly higher than those of T. oleracea. The IEF method was particularly useful for the larval stages of these species because they are often visually inseparable. Tipulids obtained during a survey of Northern Ireland and north-eastern and western Scotland were tested to determine the distribution and frequency of these species occurring in grassland. In each area surveyed T. paludosa predominated, with only 1 field in Northern Ireland and north-eastern Scotland containing T. oleracea. In western Scotland, T. oleracea occurred in 5 fields each year of the survey, and was locally abundant on the Isle of Bute in 1990-91, making up 15% of the total larvae tested.

Humphreys-IC; Blackshaw-RP; Stewart-RM; Coll-C; Williams-GH
Distribution of Tipula oleracea and Tipula paludosa in northern Britain.
Crop protection in Northern Britain 1993: Proceedings of a Conference, Dundee University, 23-25 March 1993. 1993, 85-90; 11 ref.
Proteins extracted from Tipulidae obtained during a survey of northern Britain were separated using isoelectric focusing to determine the distribution and frequency of Tipula paludosa and T. oleracea occurring in grassland. Staining revealed protein banding patterns which consistently distinguished the species. In each area surveyed, T. paludosa predominated. Only 1 of 75 fields surveyed in Northern Ireland and 1 of 32 in north-eastern Scotland was found to contain T. oleracea. In western Scotland T. oleracea occurred in 5 fields out of 68 and 129 in 1990-91 and 1991-92 surveys, resp. This species was locally abundant on the Isle of Bute in 1990-91, making up 15% of the total larvae tested.

Hutson, A M. ; Vane-Wright R I. ; Cranston, P S.
Revived proposals for stabilizing names in the Tipula oleracea species-group (Diptera: Tipulidae) Z. N. (S) 896.
Bull Zool Nomencl 33, no. 1 (JUNE 1976): 39-45.

Hynes, C. D.
The immature stages of Hesperoconopa dolichophallus (Alex.) (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Pan-Pac. Entomol. 1968, 44: 324-27.

Hynes, C. D.
The immature stages of the genus Lipsothrix in the western United States (Tipulidae: Diptera).
Pan-Pac. Entomol. 1965, 41: 165-72.

Hynes, C. D.
Description of the immature stages of Cryptolabis magnistyla Alexander (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Pan-Pac. Entomol. 1963, 39: 255-60.

Iriarte, J. ; Bel, Y. ; Ferrandis, M.D. ; Andrew, R. ; Murillo, J. ; Ferre, J. ; Caballero, P.
Environmental distribution and diversity of Bacillus thuringiensis in Spain.
Systematic and applied microbiology. 21, no. 1 (Mar 1998): p. 97-106.
Bacillus thuringiensis was isolated from 301 out of 1,005 samples collected in Spain from agricultural and non-cultivated soils, dust from stored products, and dead insects. Based on the production of parasporal crystals, 1,401 isolates were identified as B. thuringiensis after examining 11,982 B. thuringiensis-like colonies. We found a greater presence of B. thuringiensis in dust from grain storages than in other habitats. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the spore-crystal mixtures revealed diverse populations of B. thuringiensis which were differentiated in at least 92 distinct protein profiles. Serological identification also showed great diversity among the Spanish isolates which were distributed among 38 of the 58 known serovars. The most frequently found serovars were aizawai, kurstaki, konkukian, morrisoni, and thuringiensis, which together represented more than 50% of the serotyped isolates. In preliminary toxicity assays, a number of isolates were found to show significant insecticidal activity against the lepidopterans Heliothis armigera (76.1% of the assayed isolates), Spodoptera exigua (50.5%), and Plutella xylostella (19.7%). Thirty five isolates were toxic to both H. armigera and S. exigua, and eight were toxic to S. exigua and P. xylostella. Four and one isolates were toxic to the coleopterans Leptinotarsa decemlineata and Colaspidema atrum, respectively, and three to the dipteran Tipula oleracea. The electrophoretic pattern and serovar of most of the isolates with toxic activity were consistent with those reported in the literature, although other isolates revealed unusual protein profiles, were assigned to new H serovars, or were included in H serovars not previously reported within such pathotypes.

Jackson, D M.
European crane fly (Tipula paludosa) an introduced pest of turf and pasture in Whatcom County, Washington.
Proc Wash State Entomol Soc (MAR 1973): 356-358.

Jackson, David Michael
Biology of the European crane fly, Tipula paludosa Meigen, in western Wasthington (Tipulidae; Diptera)
Pullman: College of Agriculture Research Center, Washington State University, Publishing Agencies: Experiment Station
Description: II, 22, [1] P. : ILL., MAP. - 1975.

Jackson, D M. ; Campbell, R L.
Biology of the european crane fly, Tipula paludosa Meigen, in western Wasthington (Tipulidae; Diptera)
Tech Bull Wash Agric Exp Stn 81 (JULY 1975): 23 p. map. ref. Publishing Agencies: Experiment Station

Keilin, D.
Sur diverses glandes de diptères.
Arch. Zool. Exp. Gen. 1913, 52: 1-8.

Keller, S.
On two entomophthora [Fung] of Tipula paludosa MEIG. [SYSTEMATIC POSITION].
Mitt Schweiz Entomol Ges 50, no. 3/4 (1977): 277-284. ENG. SUM.

Keller, S.
Entomophthora gigantea sp. nov. and Entomophthora caroliniana (Thaxter) comb. nov. Fungi, new taxa, two pathogens of Tipula paludosa Meig. in Switzerland.
p. 87-93. ill., 3 plates. Sydowia; annales mycologici. Horn, Austria, Ferdinand Berger. 1978 (pub. 1979). v. 31 (1/6) ISSN: 0082-0598

Kelly-M
The biological control of leatherjackets.
Proceedings of meeting on biological control of pests and diseases. 1990, 42-47; 14 ref.
Agriculture and Food Science Centre, Department of Agriculture; Belfast; UK
Surveys were carried out in Northern Ireland, UK, in 1985-88 to identify the important natural enemies of Tipula paludosa and T. oleracea. Iridescent and nuclear polyhedrosis viruses, a nematode species, a microsporidium [microspora] and a bacterial pathogen were isolated from tipulids trapped in the survey. A T. paludosa egg parasite was identified as Anaphes sp. The iridescent virus (applied in greenhouses in infected Galleria cadavers) and Anaphes spp. (when in large numbers and in synchrony with the pest population) were identified as the most potentially useful as biological control agents. It is suggested that the Anaphes sp. may be useful in North America where Tilupa spp. are introduced, rather than native, pests.

Kistchinski, A. A. 1978.
Trophic relations between birds and some invertebrates in tundra exosystems.
Zh. Obshch. Dial. 1978, 39: 212-26. (In Russian)

Klug, M. J., Kotarski, S.
Bacteria associated with the gut tract of larval stages of the aquatic cranefly Tipula abdominalis (Diptera; Tipulidae).
Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1980, 40: 408-16.

Knizeski, H. M.
Ecology of the crane flies in southern New York (Diptera: Tipulidae).
PhD thesis. Fordham Univ., Bronx, NY. 1978, 268 pp.

Lam A.B.Q., Webster J.M.
Effect of the DD-136 nematode and of a a-exotoxin preparation of Bacillus thuringiensis var. thuringiensis on leatherjackets, Tipula paludosa larvae
Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 1972, 20:(2) 141-149.
Abstract:A commereial preparation, IMC 10,001.1, containing the,B-exotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis var. thuringiensis, caused the mortality of third and fourth instar larvae of Tipula paludosa in laboratory experiments. Some larvae that survived the, 3-exotoxin treatment produced morphologically abnormal pupae and adults. The nematode DD-136 strain of Neoaplectana carpocapsoe reproduced sueeessfully in T. paludosa larvae. and in the laboratory an inoculum equivalent to about 22.2 X lO 9 infective DD-136 larvae per acre caused a 100% mortality of the insect larvae 13 days after infection. However, at 1/2 and 1/4 of the above inoculum, the nematodes caused only 34.0% and 29.8% insect mortality, respectively. The results from a combined application of a low dose of the B-exotoxin preparation with a low inoculum of DD-136 suggested a possible synergistic action of the two substances and resulted in an increased percentage of insect mortality. The possible mechanisms of action of the B-exotoxin and of DD-136 are discussed.

Lam, A B Q. ; Webster, J M.
Morphology and biology of Panagrolaimus tipulae N. sp. (Panagrolaimidae) and Rhabditis (Rhabditella) tipulae N. sp. (Rhabditidae), from leatherjacket larvae, Tipula paludosa (Diptera: Tipulidae)
Nematologica 17, no. 2 (JUNE 1971): 201-212.

Laughlin, R. 1967.
Biology of Tipula paludosa; growth of the larva in the field.
Entomol. Exp. Appl. 1967, 10: 52-68.

Laughlin, R.
Biology of Tipula oleracea L.: Growth of the larvae.
Entomol. Exp. Appl. 1960, 3: 185-97.

Lewis, G.C. ; Vaughan, B.
Evaluation of a fungal endophyte (Neotyphodium lolii) for control of leatherjackets (Tipula spp.) in perennial ryegrass.
Tests of agrochemicals and cultivars. 18 (Sept 1997): p. 34-35.

Lind-P
Managing crane flies in lawns.
Journal-of-Pesticide-Reform. 1998, 18: 4, 22-23; 17 ref.
Management methods for crane flies such as Tipula paludosa, pests of turf in North America, are considered. The biology of crane flies is outlined, detailing the larval stage which feeds on grasses. Methods to monitor crane fly populations are listed. Providing drainage, reducing irrigation, slicing and aerating are suggested as physical and mechanical control methods. Appropriate varieties of grass, such as rye grass [Lolium perenne], can reduce crane fly problems. Biological control agents, including Steinernema carpocapsae and S. feltiae, are considered. The value of ground beetles [Carabidae] and birds as natural enemies is considered.

Lindner, E.
Beitrage zur Kenritnis der Larven der Limoniidae (Diptera).
Z Morphot Okol. Tiere. 1959, 48: 209-319.

Lindner, E.
Zur Kenntnis der Eier der Limoniidae (Diptera, Tipuliformia).
Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin. 1958, 34: 113-33.

Loi, G.
Note sui Tipulidi (Dipt., Nematoc.) italiani di interesse agrario. 2. Pales crocata L.: considerazioni sul numero di generazioni annuali.
Frustula Entomol. 1973, 12: 1-12.

Luff, M.L.; Rushton, S.P.
The effects of pasture improvement on the ground beetle and spider fauna of upland grasslands.
Aspects of applied biology. 17,pt.1 (1988): p. 67-74.

Maclean, S. F.
Life cycle and growth energetics of the arctic crane fly Pedicia hannai antenatta.
Oikos. 1973, 24: 436-43.

Maclean, S. F., Pitelka, F. A.
Seasonal patterns of abundance of tundra arthropods near Barrow.
Arctic. 1971, 24: 19-40.

Maercks, H.
Untersuchungen zur Biologie und Bekämpfung schadlicher Tipuliden.
Arb. Physiol. Angew. Entomol. 1939, 6: 222-57.

Maercks, H.
Uber die Ursachen des Schadauftretens von Tipula paludosa Meig. und T czizeki de J.im Jahre 1942.
Arb. Physiol. Angew. Entomol. 1943, 10: 73-85.

Martin, M. M., Martin, J. S., Kukor, J. J., Merritt, R. W.
The digestion of protein and carbohydrate by the stream detritivoreTipula abdominalis (Diptera, Tipulidae).
Oecologia. 1980, 46: 360-64.

Meats, A.
The developmental dynamics of Tipula paludosa and the relation of climate to its growth pattern and flight season.
Ent. exp. & appl. 1975, 19: 312-320.

Meats, A.
A population model for two species of Tipula (Diptera, Nematocera) derived from data on their physiological relations with their environment.
Oecologia 1974, 16: 119-138.

Meats, A.
Simulation of the population trends of Tipula paludosa using a model fed with climatological data. Oecologia 1974, 16: 139-147.

Meats, A.
The effect of soil flooding on the survival and development of the eggs of Tipula oleracea and Tipula paludosa Meigen.
J. Ent. (A). 1972, 46: 99-102.

Meats, A.
Susceptibility of the leatherjackets Tipula oleracea and Tipula paludosa to soil flooding.
Ann appl. Biol. 1970, 65: 25-38.

Meats, A.
The effect of exposure to unsaturated air on the survival and development of eggs of Tipula oleracea and Tipula paludosa Meigen.
Proc. R. Ent. Soc. Lond. (A)., 1968, 43: 85-88.

Meats, A.
The relation between survival and water loss in larvae of Tipula oleracea and Tipula paludosa (Diptera) on exposure to unsaturated air.
J. Insect Physiol. 1967, 13: 1119-1131.

Meats, A.
The relation between soil-water tension and growth rate of larvae of Tipula oleracea and Tipula paludosa (Diptera) in turf.
Ent. exp. & appl. 1967, 19: 312-320.

Meats, A.
The relation between soil-water tension and rate of development of the eggs of Tipula oleracea and Tipula paludosa (Diptera).
Ent exp. & appl. 1967, 19: 394-400.

Merritt, R. W.; Lawson, D. L.
Leaf litter processing in floodplain and stream communities.
In Strategies for protection and management of floodplain wetland and other riparian ecosystems, ed. R. R. Johnson, J. F. McCormick. 1979, pp. 93-105. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO12, For. Serv., USDA, Washington DC

Merritt, R. W., Lawson, D. L.
Adult emergence patterns and species distrubition and abundance of Tipulidae in three woodland floodplains.
Environ. Entomol. 1981, 10: 915-21.

Miall, L. C., Shelford, R.
The structure and life-history of Phalacrocera replicata.
Trans. Entomol. Soc. London 1897: 343-61.

Milner, R.J. ; Beaton, C.D.
A novel milky disease organism from Australian scarabaeids Aphodius tasmaniae; Tipula paludosa; Armadillium granulatum: ultrastructure.
p. 310-318. ill. Publishing Agencies: US Imprint, not USDA Journal of invertebrate pathology. New York, Academic Press. May 1981. v. 37 (3) ISSN: 0022-2011

Mime, A., Laughlin, R., Coggins, R. E.
The 1955 and 1959 population crashes in the leatherjacket, Tipula paludosa Meigen, in Northumberland.
J. Anim. Ecol. 1965, 34: 529-44.

Morris,-R.F.
Notes on an unusual habitat for overwintering European crane fly larvae (Diptera: Tipulidae) in Newfoundland.
Can-Entomol. Ottawa : Entomological Society of Canada. Nov 1986. v. 118 (11) p. 1205-1206. plates.

Mowat,-D.J.; Jess,-S.
The control of leatherjackets, Tipula paludosa Meig., in grassland by early application of insecticide.
Grass-Forage-Sci. Oxford : Blackwell Scientific Publications. Mar 1986. v. 41 (1) p. 27-30.

Myers, J.H. ; Iyer, R.
Phenotypic and genetic characteristics of the European cranefly Tipula paludosa following its introduction and spread in western North America.
p. 519-532. ill. Publishing Agencies: Non-US Imprint, not FAO The Journal of animal ecology. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications. June 1981. v. 50 (2) ISSN: 0021-8790

Myers, J. H., Iyer, R.
Phenotypic and genetic characteristics of the European cranefly following its introduction and spread in western North America.
J. Anim. Ecol. 1981, 50: 519-32.

Nichols, D.B.R. ; Wright, A.J. ; French, N.
Yield response of improved upland pasture to the control of leatherjackets under increasing rates of nitrogen.
Tests of agrochemicals and cultivars. 8 (Apr 1987): p. 18-19.

O'Hara, J. E.
Classification, phylogeny, and zoogeography of the North American species of Siphona Meigen (Diptera: Techinidae).
Quaestiones entomologicae. Jan/Oct 1982. v. 18(1/4): p.261-380.

Panov, A. A. 1980.
The cerebral neurosecretory system of Tipulidae (Diptera, Insecta).
Zool. Anz. 1980, 205: 345-58.

Pennell, J T.
Washington State University Cooperative Extension Service.
The European crane fly [Tipula paludosa]: A lawn pest
EM Coop Ext Serv Coll Agric Wash State Univ 3478 (JULY 1976): 2 p. Publishing Agencies: Extension Service

Perel, T. S., Karpachevsky, L. O., Yegorova, E. V.
The role of Tipulidae (Diptera) larvae in decomposition of forest litter-fall.
Pedobiologial. 1971, 11: 66-70.

Pesho, G.R.+ Brauen, S.E. ; Goss, R.L.
European crane fly: larval infestations in grass cultivars Tipula paludosa.
p. 230-233. Publishing Agencies: AR-W; US Imprint, not USDA Journal of economic entomology. College Park, Md., Entomological Society of America. Apr 1981. v. 74 (2) ISSN: 0022-0493

Peters,-A.; Ehlers,-R.U.
Encapsulation of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae in Tipula oleracea.
J-invertebr-pathol. Orlando, Fla. : Academic Press. May 1997. v. 69 (3) p. 218-222.
The encapsulation response of Tipula oleracea to the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae was investigated by exposing the insects to nematode dauer juveniles (DJs) and by injecting DJs with and without the symbiotic bacteria Xenorhabdus bovienii. The encapsulation response varied considerably between individual insect larvae. The variation could not be attributed to a more or less scattered nematode invasion over time since it was also recorded after simultaneous injection of a fixed DJ dose. The proportion of encapsulated nematodes declined with increasing dose (injected DJs/larva) from approx 80% for 1 DJ/larva to 33-34% for 20 DJ/larva. Tipula oleracea larvae were capable of encapsulating nematodes with and without symbionts inside the hemocoel; however, at doses of 10 and 20 DJ/larva, axenic nematodes were encapsulated less frequently than monoxenic nematodes. Injected axenic nematodes that were not encapsulated did not develop in T. oleracea larvae but disappeared from the insect's hemocoel. Coinjection of symbiotic bacteria increased encapsulation of axenic nematodes, showing that X. bovienii is triggering the encapsulation response of T. oleracea against S. feltiae.

Peters,-A.; Gouge,-D.H.; Ehlers,-R.U.; Hague,-N.G.M.
Avoidance of encapsulation by Heterorhabditis spp. infecting larvae of Tipula oleracea.
J-invertebr-pathol. Orlando, Fla. : Academic Press. Sept 1997. v. 70 (2) p. 161-164.

Peters-A; Ehlers-RU
Encapsulation of the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae in Tipula oleracea.
Journal-of-Invertebrate-Pathology. 1997, 69: 3, 218-222; 17 ref.
Dauer juveniles of Tipula oleracea were both exposed to (n=66) or injected with (n=27) Steinernema feltiae to assess the encapsulation response of the host insect. Dauer juvenile nematode larvae were used, with and without the bacterial symbiont Xenorhabdus boviensii. Larval mortality and encapsulation were measured 5 days afer exposure and 3 days after injection. The encapsulation response of T. oleracea declined with increasing dose (injected nematodes/larva), and monoxenic nematodes were encapsulated more frequently than axenic nematodes. It is concluded that X. boviensii triggers an encapsulation response to S. feltiae in T. oleracea.

Peters-A; Gouge-DH; Ehlers-RU; Hague-NGM
Avoidance of encapsulation by Heterorhabditis spp. infecting larvae of Tipula oleracea.
Journal-of-Invertebrate-Pathology. 1997, 70: 2, 161-164; 10 ref.
Laboratory studies showed that the enduring cuticle of Heterorhabditis spp. has an important role in avoiding encapsulation in the host, Tipula oleracea, a finding which is probably applicable to other insects capable of encapsulating nematodes. Implications for current protocols designed to test the pathogenicity of entomopathogenic nematodes are discussed.

Peters-A; Ehlers-RU; Simoes-N (ed.); Boemare-N (ed.); Ehlers-R -U
Evaluation and selection for enhanced nematode pathogenicity against Tipula spp.
Cost 819 - entomopathogenic nematodes. Pathogenicity of entomopathogenic nematodes versus insect defence mechanisms: impact on selection of virulent strains. Proceedings held at Universidade dos Acres, Ponta Delgada, Acores, Portugal, 17 to 20 March 1996. 1998, 225-241; 33 ref.
The infection process of Steinernema feltiae in Tipula oleracea and, partly, T. paludosa, was investigated to establish traits limiting nematode pathogenicity. Dauer larvae (DL) of S. feltiae react to host cues of T. oleracea and are arrested near the larvae. Steinernema feltiae does not show significant differences in host finding of Galleria mellonella and Tipula spp.. However, nematode invasion is significantly higher in G. mellonella. Pathogenicity to T. oleracea and nematode invasion was correlated among different nematode strains and species examined. The invasion activity is considered to be an important trait limiting nematode pathogenicity. Encapsulation of S. feltiae in T. oleracea may limit the nematodes pathogenicity, especially when low nematode doses are applied. The encapsulation response is highly variable between individual tipulid larvae which restricts improvement by selective breeding. The pathogenicity of the nematodes symbiotic bacteria, Xenorhabdus bovienii, is low. In the nematode/bacteria complex, however, pathogenicity is synergistically increased. Selective breeding for improved invasion of nematodes into T. oleracea has been applied to S. feltiae and H. bacteriophora using different techniques. Both nematode species responded to selection. The response of H. bacteriophora was significantly higher than that of S. feltiae.

Peters-A; Huneke-K; Ehlers-RU; of-the-working-groups]-Poznan-Poland-27-August-1-September-1995-[-Smits-PH
Host finding by the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae.
Insect pathogens and insect parasitic nematodes. Proceedings of the first joint meeting. Bulletin-OILB-SROP. 1996, 19: 9, 99-102; 8 ref.
The ability of Steinernema feltiae to disperse in sand and locate 4th-instar larvae of Tipula oleracea and last-instar larvae of Galleria mellonella was studied at 20-23°C. Destructive sampling of sand columns showed that 50% of dauer larvae dispersed without the presence of an insect host. The presence of larvae of T. oleracea _4 cm from the inoculation site did not increase the proportion of dauer larvae dispersing. However, the nematodes did accumulate in the vicinity and inside the T. oleracea larvae. When given a choice between two sand filled cylinders, with or without an insect host, the number of nematodes which visited the cylinder without an insect was not significantly lower than the number aggregating in the cylinder with the insect. Hence, dauer larvae were not attracted by the insect but were arrested after reaching a host. There was no difference in the aggregation of dauer larvae in response to larvae of T. oleracea or G. mellonella, but penetration into G. mellonella was significantly higher than into T. oleracea.

Peters-A; Ehlers-RU
Susceptibility of leatherjackets (Tipula paludosa and Tipula oleracea; Tipulidae; Nematocera) to the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema feltiae.
Journal-of-Invertebrate-Pathology. 1994, 63: 2, 163-171; 41 ref.
Laboratory bioassays were conducted to investigate the susceptibility of larvae of Tipula paludosa and T. oleracea to Steinernema feltiae [Steinernema bibionis]. Dauer juveniles (DJs) entered the larval haemocoel mainly by direct penetration of the cuticle and were encapsulated in the haemocoel in all except 1st instars. Depending on the number of invading nematodes larval death could be prevented by this encapsulation. Larval mortality was correlated with the number of invading nematodes, indicating that penetration by DJs was the limiting step during pathogenesis. In contrast to other instars, the dose-mortality response of young 1st instars was less pronounced. T. oleracea was more susceptible to S. bibionis than T. paludosa. In both Tipula species maximum mortality was recorded for the 1st instar approaching the 1st moult, while young 1st instars were less susceptible. Susceptibility of 2nd- to 4th-instar larvae decreased with their age. For T. oleracea, LC50 values ranged from 7 DJs per insect for the 1st instar approaching the 1st moult, to 56 DJs for the 4th instar. Nematode invasion was not correlated to CO2 release by the different larval stages. It was therefore, concluded that penetration was not triggered by CO2, but by other more specific stimuli.
[The susceptibility of Tipula paludosa and Tipula oleracea larvae to Steinernema feltiae was examined in laboratory bioassays. Dauer juveniles (DJs) entered the larval hemocoel mainly by direct penetration of the cuticle. All instars except L1 encapsulated nematodes in the hemocoel. However, the prevention of larval death by encapsulation was dependent on the number of invading nematodes. Larval mortality was correlated with the number of invading nematodes, indicating that DJ penetration is the limiting step during pathogenesis. In contrast to other instars, the dosage-mortality response of young L1 was less pronounced. T. paludosa was less susceptible to S. feltiae than T. oleracea. In both Tipula species highest mortality was recorded for the L1 approaching the first molt, while young L1 were less susceptible. Susceptibility of L2 to L4 larvae decreased with their age. For T. oleracea, LC50 values ranged from 7 DJs per insect for the L1 approaching the first molt, to 56 for the L4. CO2 release of the different larval stages was not correlated to nematode invasion. It is therefore concluded that penetration is not triggered by CO2, but by other more specific stimuli]

Peters, W.
Investigations on the peritrophic membranes of Diptera.
In The Insect Integument, ed. H. R. Hepburn. 1976, pp. 515-43. Amsterdam: Elsevie

Peus, F. 1952.
Cylindrotomidae.
In Die Fliegen der Palearktischen Region, ed. E. Lindner. 1952, 17:1-80. Stuttgart: Lief

Price, G N. ; Wright, D S.
Chlorpyrifos granules for the control of soil pests [Erioischia brassicae, Letohylemyia coarctata, Tipula] in brassica and other crops.
Monogr BR Crop Prot Counc (1976): 10-20.

Priesner, E.
Nahrungswahl und Nahrungsverarbeitung bei der Larve von Tipulamaxima.
Pedobiologia. 1961, 1: 25-37.

Pritchard, G.
Biology of Tipulidae
Ann. Rev. Entomol. 1983, 28: 1-22.

Pritchard, G.
The growth of Tipula larvae with particular reference to the head capsule (Diptera: Tipulidae).
p. 2646-2651. ill. Publishing Agencies: Non-US Imprint, not FAO Canadian journal of zoology = Journal canadien de zoologie. Ottawa : National Research Council of Canada. Nov 1982. v. 60 (11) ISSN: 0008-4301
Larvae of Tipula paludosa, under favorable conditions of temperature, food, and photoperiod, grow continuously throughout the first three larval stages and into the fourth. At 21°C and 16 h light: 8 h dark regime, larval growth slowed markedly after about 20 days into the fourth stage, but imaginal leg and wing bud development continued for more than another 50 days. The invaginated portions of the larval head capsule show the same pattern of growth as the rest of the body. It is proposed that hemicephaly and restricted sclerotization allow tipulid larvae to grow to large size with relatively few molts, but that molting is necessary to increase the size of the feeding apparatus.

Pritchard, G.
Life budgets for a population of Tipula sacra (Diptera; Tipulidae).
Ecol. Entomol. 1980, 5: 165-73.
1. A population of Tipula sacra was studied intensively from 1969 to 1974 in a series of abandoned beaver ponds. Beavers recolonized the ponds from 1974 to 1976 and again in 1978.
2. The basic life cycle is of 2 years duration, but cohort-splitting occurs in the autumn as a result of some larvae growing faster and completing the life-cycle in 1 year.
3. Some periods are more favourable for growth than others and the size of fast-growing cohort varies from year to year. This insight allows some anomalies in the estimates of population size to be explained and life budgets have been produced for three year-classes.
4. The short-fall in realization of egg potential is massive, apparently due to heavy female mortality by predation and the prevention of ovipostion by inclement weather.
5. Mortality rate is relatively low and constant from stage II larvae until pupation, but increases to adult emergence. There is a correlation between larval density and mortality rate.
6. Certain aspects of the life-history (e.g. high fecundity, variability in growth rate) appear to fit the species to life in a temporally unstable habitat.

Pritchard, G.
Study of dynamics of populations of aquatic insects: the problem of variability in life history exemplified by Tipula sacra Alexander (Diptera; Tipulidae).
Verh. Int. Ver. Theor. Angew. Limnol. 1978, 20: 2634-40.

Pritchard, G.
Growth and development of larvae and adults of Tipula sacra Alexander (Insecta: Diptera) in a series of abandoned beaver ponds.
Can. J. Zool. 54, no. 2 (1976): 266-84.
Collections of all stages of the crane fly, Tipula sacra have been made over a period of years from a series of abandoned beaver ponds in the Kananaskis Valley, Alberta. The growth of the larvae was followed by head-capsule measurements and weights. Eggs hatch within a month; first instar larvae grow rapidly and enter the second instar after a few weeks. The second instar may last for 3 months and the third instar usually lasts for 6 months, including the first winter. Most larvae spend almost a full year in the fourth instar and overwinter for a second time. However, there was much variation in the growth rate within the population. Adult emergence curves were consistent in form in 4 years. Each spanned a period of just over 2 months, although individual adults lived for only a few days. These curves showed two peaks, the second of which contained 15- 20% of the year's emergents. These two groups may represent different cohorts that have grown at different rates, suggesting that the life history may be semivoltine or univoltine. The sex ratio 30changes from about 1:1 in the third instar to 2:1 in favor of males in the late fourth instar, pupa, and adult.

Pritchard, G., Hall, H. A.
An introduction to the biology of craneflies in a series of abandoned beaver ponds, with an account of the life cycle of Tipula sacra Alexander (Diptera; Tipulidae).
Can. J. Zool. 1971, 49: 467-82.
A series of five beaver ponds that have been abandoned for about 10 years is described, and an introduction to the ecology of the area is given. The life cycle of the cranefly Tipula sacra is described. This is the commonest cranefly in the area and the larvae are important grazers on the microflora in benthic sediments. There are four larval instars, which can be separated by a combination of the presence or absence of setae on the spiracular lobes and the size of the spiracles. Larvae in instars III and IV can be sexed by examination of the gonads, while the presence of growth lamellae on the lateral sclerites of the head capsule shows promise as a means of aging larvae in all instars.

Pritchard, G.; Mutch, C.
Intermolt cuticle and muscle growth in Tipula larvae (Insecta, Diptera).
Con. J. Zool. 1984, 62: 1351-1354.
The head capsule of larval Tipula consists of three regions: (i) a heavily sclerotized anterior region that is free form the body and carries the mouthparts, (ii) a middle region permanently fused to the invaginated cervical cuticle, and (iii) a posterior region to which cuticle is added between ecdyses. Mandibular and head protractor muscles increase in size during the intermolt period by growing in parallel with the cuticle. Increased muscle power is thereby probably achieved without molting.

Pritchard, G.; Stewart, M.
How cranefly larvae breathe Tipula paludosa.
p. 310-317. Publishing Agencies: Non-US Imprint, not FAO Canadian journal of zoology = Journal canadien de zoologie. Ottawa, National Research Council of Canada. Mar 1982. v. 60 (3) ISSN: 0008-4301
Aeropyles in the spiracles of the larvae of the terrestrial Tipula paludosa and the aquatic but air-breathing Pedicia parvicellula and an unidentified Tipula are illustrated. In T. paludosa these aeropyles are present and open throughout the larval like and through the pharate pupal phase. By contrast, the aeropyles of the aquatic T. sacra and T. abdominalis are essentially closed and, in T. sacra at least, appear not to function during the larval stage. Gas exchange must be effected cutaneously in these latter species and, in T. sacra, the spiracular lobes and perhaps the smaller lobes along the body are principal sites of oxygen uptake. However, the larval spiracles of T. sacra do function during the terrestrial pharate pupal phase, when the central scar plug of the spiracle breaks down. Tipula paludosa has a well-developed "tracheal lung" emanating from the spiracular atrium, but this is absent in T. sacra. It is suggested that this lung functions as a tracheal gill when terrestrial habitats become flooded.

Ramsell, J., Malloch, A.J.C. & Whittaker, J.B.
When grazed by Tipula paludosa, Lolium perenne is a stronger competitor of Rumex obtusifolius.
Journal of Ecology 1993, 81: 777-786.

Rayner, J M.
Chemical control of leatherjackets (Tipula spp.) in cereals.
Proc Br Insectic Fungic Conf 8TH, no. V. 1 (1975): 231-236.

Revet, B.M.J. ; Guelpa, B.
The genome of a baculovirus infecting Tipula paludosa (Meig) (Diptera): a high molecular weight closed circular DNA of zero superhelix density Potential tool in biological control.
p. 633-639. ill. Publishing Agencies: US Imprint, not USDA Virology New York, Academic July 30, 1979. v. 96 (2) ISSN: 0042-6822

Ricou, G.
Production of Tipula paludosa MEIG. in meadows in function of soil humidity.
Rev Ecol Biol Sol 12,, no. 1, SPECIAL NO. (JAN 1975): 69-89. ENG. SUM.

Ricou, G.; Douyer, C.; Ferret, R.; Gandin, R.
Recherches sur les populations de Tipules. Action de certains facteurs ecologiques sur Tipula paludosa Meig.
Ann. Epiphyt. 1967, 18: 451-81.

Ricou, G.
L'alimentation des larves des tipules (Tipula paludosa Meig.).
Ann. Nutr. Aliment. 1967, 21: 199-215.

Ro, A.I.; Nilsson, D.E.
Circadian and light-dependent control of the pupil mechanism in tipulid flies.
Journal of insect physiology. 40, no. 10 (Oct 1994): p. 883-891.
Infrared reflectometry of the deep pseudopupil was used for measuring the absolute sensitivity and the dynamics of the pupil mechanism in the acone apposition eye of tipulid flies. The following species were studied: Tipula luteipennis, T. fusca, T. pagana, T. paludosa and T. staegeri. Pupil responses plotted against light intensity produced S-shaped R/log I curves that were fitted by Lipetz equations with I50-values (intensity corresponding to 50% of the maximal response) ranging between 10(17.4) and 10(20.2) photons m-2 str-1 s-1. The sensitivity of the pupil is considerably higher (1-2 log units) during daytime than at night in all examined species. Differences in the sensitivity between different tipulid species are explained by the different light intensities in their natural environment. The dynamic range of the pupil mechanism is exceptionally large. In T. luteipennis, the pupil operates over a total range of about 8.5 log units of light intensity. This implies that the pupil mechanism of T. luteipennis is functional at light intensities ranging from bright sunlight down to moonlight. The speed of the pupillary movements are slower at night than during the day. During daytime, light adaptation is completed in about 30 min and dark adaptation in about 50 min. At night, the corresponding values are 45 and 60 min. The differences in speed and sensitivity of the pupil mechanism between day and night are due to a circadian rhythm, setting the control range of the pupil aperture.

Robertson, A. G. 1939.
The nocturnal activity of crane-flies (Jipulinae) as indicated by captures in a light trap at Rothamsted.
J. Anim. Ecol. 1939, 8: 300-22.

Robinson, M. H., Robinson, B.
A tipulid associated with spider webs in Papua New Guinea.
Entomol. Mon. Mag. 1976, 112: 1-3.

Rogers, J. S.
The life history of Megistocera longipennis (Macquart) (Tipulidae, Diptera), a member of the neuston fauna.
Occas. Pap. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. 1949, 521: 1-14.

Rogers, J. S. 1942.
The crane-flies (Tipulidae) of the George Reserve, Michigan.
Univ. Mich. Mus. Zool. Misc. Publ. 1942, 53: 1-128.

Rogers, J. S.
The ecological distribution of the crane-flies of northern Florida.
Ecol. Monogr. 1933, 3: 1-74.

Rohdendorf, B.
The Historical Development of Diptera.
Edmonton: Univ. Alberta. 1974, 360 pp.

Savchenko, E. N. 1966.
Phylogeny and systematics of the Tipulidae.
Fauna Ukraini. 1966, 14: 63-88. (In Russian)

Savolainen, E., Syrjamaki.
Swarming and mating of Erioptera gemina Tjeder (Dipt., Limoniidae).
Ann. Entomol. Fenn. 1971, 37: 79-85.

Sellke, K.
Biologische und morphologische Studien an schädlichen Wiesenschnaken
(Tipulidae, Dipt.).
Z. Wiss. Zool. Abt. A. 1936, 148: 465-555.

Semenova, L. M.
Morpho-ecological specificity of the digestive system in larvae of crane-flies (Tipulidae, Diptera).
ZooL Zh. 1974, 53: 394-401. (In Russian)

Service, M. W.
Spatial and temporal distribution of aerial populations of woodland tipulids (Diptera).
J. Anim. Ecol. 1973, 42: 295-303.

Shear, W. A.
Observations on the predatory behaviour of the spider Hypochilus gertschi Hoffman (Arach., Man., Hypochilidae).
Psyche. 1969, 76: 407-17.

Sherlock, P.L.
Diplocystis tipulae sp. nov. (Sporozoa: Eugregarinorida), a parasite of Tipula paludosa Meigen (Diptera: Tipulidae).
p. 207-220. ill., 4 plates. Parasitology. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Apr 1979. v. 78 (2) ISSN: 0031-1820

Shrimpton, G.
Four insect pests of conifer nurseries in British Columbia.
USDA Forest Service general technical report INT - Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 185 (June 1985): p. 119-121.

Slobodchikoff, C. N.
Behavioral and morphological mimicry in a cranefly and an ichneumonid.
Pan-Pac. Entomol. 1974, 50: 155-59.

Smits-PH; Vlug-HJ
Control of tipulid larvae with Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis.
Proceedings and abstracts, Vth International Colloquium on Invertebrate Pathology and Microbial Control, Adelaide, Australia, 20-24 August 1990. 1990, 343.
Laboratory and field studies on the use of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis for the control of Tipula paludosa and T. oleracea in grasslands are summarized. Over 95% mortality of 1st-instar larvae was achieved by spraying with Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis. It was shown that young larvae feed predominantly on leaves.

Smits-PH; Vlug-HJ; Wiegers-GL
Biological control of leatherjackets with Bacillus thuringiensis.
Proceedings-of-the-Section-Experimental-and-Applied-Entomology-of-the-Netherlands-Entomological-Society. 1993, No. 4: 187-192; 14 ref.
The use of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis for the control of Tipula oleracea was investigated. In laboratory bioassays, susceptibility to the pathogen decreased with larval age. Two commercial products of B. t. israelensis (Skeetal and Vectobac) were tested against 1st-instar larvae in a lawn. A dosage of 45 litres/ha of each product reduced numbers to below the damage threshold of 150 larvae/m2. Three bait formulations (ground Bti pellets alone or with wheat bran or wheat germ) were tested against 3rd-instar larvae in natural grass sods in a greenhouse. The ground Bti pellets gave the best results (61%). This paper was presented at the 4th meeting of experimental and applied entomologists in the Netherlands, held at Ede, Netherlands, on 18 December 1992.

Standen, V.
The influence of soil fauna on decomposition by microorganisms in blanket bog litter.
J. Anim. Ecol. 1978, 47: 25-38.

Stebaev, I. V.
Role of the soil in-vertebrates in the development of microflora in the soil of the subarctic (as exemplified by the larvae of Tipulidae, Diptera).
Proc. Acad. Sci. USSR Sect. Dial. Sea. 1958, 122: 741-43.

Stewart, M. ; Pritchard, G.
Pharate phases in Tipula paludosa (Diptera: Tipulidae) Metamorphic stage, insects.
p. 275-278. ill. Publishing Agencies: Non-US Imprint, not FAO Canadian entomologist. Ottawa, Entomological Society of Canada. Mar 1982. v. 114 (3) ISSN: 0008-347X
Tipula paludosa spends increasing periods of time in a pharate condition with each succeeding molt. The pupa is entirely pharate since larval-pupal ecdysis coincides with pupal-adult apolysis, and the larger part of the adult instar is also spent in a pharate condition. The fact that the instar usually referred to as the pupa is actually a pharate adult should be clearly understood by physiologists, ethologists, and ecologists.

Stewart, R.M. ; Kozicki, K.K.
DIY assessment of leatherjacket numbers in grassland.
Crop protection in northern Britain. (1987): p. 349-354.

Stich, H. F.
An experimental analysis of the courtship pattern of Tipula okracea (Diptera).
Can. J. Zool. 1963, 41: 99-109.

Striganova, B. R., Valiachmedov, B. V.
Beteiligung bodenbewohnender Saprophagen an der Zersetzung der Laubstreu in Pistazienwaldern.
Pedobiologia. 1976, 16: 219-27.

Sudhaus, W.
Redescription of Rhabditis (Oscheius) tipulae (Nematoda: Rhabditidae) associated with leather-jackets, larvae of Tipula paludosa (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Nematologica 1993, 39:234-239.

Szewczyk-D; Langenbruch-GA
A new rearing method for Tipula paludosa and Tipula oleracea (Dript., Tipulidae) and some records on the development of the laboratory population.
Journal-of-Applied-Entomology. 1997, 121: 9-10, 549-554; 17 ref.

Szewczyk-D; Langenbruch-GA
Rearing experiments and frass preferences of Tipula paludosa and Tipula oleracea.
Untersuchungen zu zucht und frasspraferenzen von Tipula paludosa und Tipula oleracea. Mededelingen-van-de-Faculteit-Landbouwwetenschappen,-Universiteit-Gent. 1993, 58: 2B, 599-605; 13 ref.
The biological control of Tipula paludosa and T. oleracea was investigated using Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis. A simple rearing method was developed. Stellaria media was preferred to many other native and cultivated plants.

Thomas- B.J.; Meats-A.
The effect of simulated 'wash off ' from spot-sprays containing either Malathion or Phloxine B on ground-dwelling arthropods in an orchard.
Agricultural & Forest Entomology 1999 1, 55-60.

Tjeder, B. 1979.
Presence of abdominal sacculi laterales in females of Tipula subgenus Emodotipula (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Entomol. Scand. 1979, 10: 241-43.

Todd-CM; Block-W
A comparison of the cold hardiness attributes in larvae of four species of Diptera.
Cryo-letters. 1995, 16: 3, 137-146; 25 ref.
Cold hardiness attributes in larvae of 4 species of Diptera, 3 upland species from the genus Tipula (including T. montana and T. paludosa) and 1 from the genus Bibio from a lowland habitat were investigated. This was done by measuring the supercooling point (temperature of crystallisation), assessing survival after freezing, and determining body water content and concentrations of polyols and sugars of larval samples. All the species exhibited a limited supercooling capacity, with mean supercooling points ranging from -3.7°C in Bibio marci to -5.5°C in Tipula excisa. The body water content ranged from 78% in B. marci to 89% of fresh weight in the Tipula species, and low concentrations of sugars and polyols (potential cryoprotectants) were found in all species. The larvae of the Tipula species exhibited freeze tolerance whereas those of B. marci were freezing intolerant. It is postulated that the latter may avoid freezing situations by behavioural methods.

Traynier, R M M. ; Burton, D J.
Male response to females in the marsh crane fly, Tipula paludosa MG. (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Entomol Soc Brit Columbia J (OCT 1, 1970): 21-22.

Tucker, G.G. ; Cutler, J.R.
A survey of pesticide usage against leatherjackets (Tipula species) in cereal crops in south-west Scotland in 1975.
p. 247-253. ill., map. Pesticide science. Oxford, Blackwell. June 1979. v. 10 (3)

Unknown.
Leatherjackets. [Tipula paludosa, biological control (insects), Sipona geniculata]
Butter-fat 48, no. 1 (JAN/FEB 1970): 5-7.

Unknown
Leatherjackets [Tipula Paludosa, field crop pests].
Advis Leafl G B Minist Agric Fish Food (1975)

Vlug-HJ
Feeding behaviour of tipulid larvae on grass.
Mededelingen-van-de-Faculteit-Landbouwwetenschappen,-Rijksuniversiteit-Gent. 1990, 55: 2b, 545-547; 3 ref.
Experiments with Tipula oleracea indicated that 1st-instar larvae fed on the young leaves of Lolium perenne. Older larvae fed at the base of stems and roots, and sometimes cut the grass stems and pulled them down into their holes to eat them. When larvae were dissected at regular intervals to examine the gut contents, 62% of the guts contained chlorophyll, 5% root fragments, and 28% both root and stem fragments. First-instar larvae feeding only on root mass died in 1 week, whereas most larvae feeding on leaf tissues reached their final stage. This paper was presented at the International Symposium on Crop Protection in May 1990 in Ghent, Belgium.

Vlug, H.J. ; Harrewijn, P.
Analysis of gut contents and feeding behavior of tipulid larvae (Diptera: Tipulidae) using a new root-staining technique.
Journal of economic entomology. 87, no. 1 (Feb 1994): p. 101-102.
To determine whether first-instar Tipula oleracea L. preferentially feed on either grass roots or leaves, we developed a differential staining technique for grass roots. A 0.15% aqueous solution of trypan-blue stained the root-system of ryegrass sufficiently to identify root tissue in the gut system of leatherjackets. It did not stain leaf tissue of the same plants. Using stained grass plants, it was shown that young larvae of T. oleracea in grasslands preferentially feed on leaf tissue and not on root tissue as previously assumed.

Waalwijk, C. ; Dullemans, A. ; Maat, C.
Construction of a bioinsecticidal rhizosphere isolate of Pseudomonas fluorescens.
FEMS microbiology letters - Federation of European Microbiological Societies. 77, no. 2/3 (Jan 15, 1991): p. 257-263.
The cryIVB gene from Bacillus thuringiensis morrisoni PG-14 was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. A gene cassette was constructed that placed the gene under the control of the tac promotor. Three Pseudomonas 'suicide' vectors were made by cloning chromosomal DNA fragments from the root-colonizing Pseudomonas fluorescens strain P1 into plasmid pSUP202. The kanamycin resistance gene nptII and the cryIVB gene cassette were cloned within the Pseudomonas sequences. These constructs were introduced into the root-colonizing strain Pseudomonas fluorescens P1. Southern blot hybridizations demonstrated that the nptII and cryIVB genes were integrated into the chromosome whereas vector sequences were not. Expression of the cryIVB protein by transgenic Pseudomonas cells was demonstrated by Western blot analysis. Cell cultures of the transformed P. fluorescens were found to be toxic towards larvae of the malaria mosquito Anopheles stephensi and to leatherjackets, the larvae of Tipula oleracea.

Wal, D van der.
Fighting larvae in the pasture. [Tipula paludosa].
Bedrijfsontwikkeling 3, no. 10 (OCT 1972): 915-916.

Wassink H., Poinar G.O. Jr.
Use of the entomogenous nematode, Neoaplectana carpocapsae Weiser (Steinernematidae: Rhabditida), in Latin America
Nematropica. 1984, 14:(1) 97-109.
Abstract:The present report was prepared to collect and analyze the literature dealing with the testing of Neoaplectana carpocapsoe against insect pests of Latin America. A total of 97 species of Latin American insects from 11 orders were shown to be susceptible to N. carpocapsae. Native strains of N. carpocapsae occur in Latin America and these and isolates from other parts of the world should be tested against economically important insect pests in Latin America. The infective stages of N. carpocapsae occur in the soil and will be most effective against soil-inhabiting insects. Since rapid desiccation will destroy the infective stages in a short period, application of N. carpocapsae to exposed surfaces should be done with an additive to retard water loss. Field trials show that N. carpocapsae has real potential for use as a biological control agent in pest management programs.

White, J. H.
Observations of the life history and biology of Tipula lateralis Meig.
Ann. Appl.Biol. 1951, 38: 847-58.

White, M. J. D.
Cytological evidence on the phylogeny and classification of the Diptera.
Evolution. 1949, 3: 252-61.

Wiegers-GL; Dullemans-AM; Wijbenga-J
The rearing of Tipula oleracea L. (Dipt., Tipulidae).
Journal-of-Applied-Entomology. 1992, 114: 4, 410-414; 7 ref.
A convenient rearing method for Tipula oleracea is described. It was possible to produce 5 or 6 generations a year and to provide a constant source of larvae for experiments. The eggs were incubated on water-agar and larvae reared in moist sand and fed on lettuce. Data on development time, head capsule width, mortality and food uptake of the larvae are given.

Wigglesworth, V. B.
Transpiration through the cuticle of insects.
J. Exp. Biol. 1945, 21: 97-114.

Wigglesworth, V. B.
The function of the anal gills of the mosquito larvae.
J. Exp. Biol. 1933, 10: 16-26.

Wighton, D. C. 1980.
New species of Tipulidae from the Paleocene of Central Alberta, Canada.
Can. Entomol. 1980, 112: 621-28.

Wilkinson, A. T. S. 1984.
Tipula paludosa Meigen, European cranefly (Diptera: Tipulidae).
pp. 85-88. In Kelleher, J.S. and Hulme, M.A., eds., Biological control programmes against insects and weeds in Canada 1969-1980. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux. Slough, England. 410 pp.

Wilkinson, A. T. S. 1971.
Tipula paludosa (Melg.), European crane-fly (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Tech. Commun. Commonw. Inst. Biol. Control. 1971, 4: 54-57.

Wilkinson, A.T.S. and H.R. MacCarthy
The marsh crane fly, Tipula paludosa Mg., a new pest in British Columbia (Diptera: Tipulidae).
J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Col. 1967, 64: 29-34.

Wollecke-J; Ispas-G; Bolscher-B; Pfadenhauer-J
Microhabitat requirements and effects of flooding on populations of coexisting cranefly species (Tipula, Diptera, Nematocera) in a fen meadow.
25. Jahrestagung der Gesellschaft fur Okologie (GfO) in Dresden-Tharandt, 11-16 September, 1995. Verhandlungen-der-Gesellschaft-fur-Okologie. 1996, 26: 591-595; 8 ref."
Species composition and distribution patterns of craneflies (Tipulidae) were investigated from 1992-95 on various grassland locations in the Dromling area, a fen ecosystem in central Germany. Sites were virtually different in vegetation, groundwater level.

Wood, H. G.
The crane-flies of south-west Cape (Diptera, Tipulidae).
Ann. South. Afr.Mus. 1952, 39: 1-327.

Young-CW; Onore-G; Proano-K
First occurrence of Tipula (Tipula) oleracea Linnaeus (Diptera: Tipulidae) in the New World, with biological notes.
Journal-of-the-Kansas-Entomological-Society. 1999, 72: 2, 226-232; 20 ref.
Tipula (Tipula) oleracea Linnaeus, a species native to the Old World, is first recorded from Ecuador (South America). The local habitat for adults and immatures is reported. The last instar larva and pupa are described and illustrated. Modes for introduction of this economically important species into the Neotropical Region are discussed. Accidental introduction of larvae in soil associated with horticultural imports from Europe is considered likely.

Zalom, F. G.
Notes on male assemblages of Helius flavipes (Macq.) with reference to mating habits (Diptera: Tipulidae).
J. Kans. Entomol. Soc. 1979, 52: 553-55.

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