Descriptions, Biology, Life Cycles, Behavior, Ecology and Development

Antonelli,-A.L.; Campbell,-R.L.
The European crane fly: a lawn and pasture pest.
Ext-bull-Wash-State-Univ,-Coop-Ext. Pullman, Wash. : The Extension,. Aug 1994.

Antonelli, A.
European crane fly in Washington: history, biology, and control efforts Tipula paludosa.
p. 637-638. Publishing Agencies: US Imprint, not USDA Proceedings - Washington State Entomological Society. Pullman : The Society. Apr/Nov 1982. (44)

Antonelli, A.L. ; Campbell, R.L.
Insect answers: The European crane fly Tipula paludosa: a lawn pest.
2 p. ill. Publishing Agencies: Extension Service Washington State University. Cooperative Extension Service. E.M. Pullman, Wash., The Service. May 1979. (3478)

Binns, E S.
Post emergence aggregation and mating in Tipula paludosa MG. (Diptera, Tipulidae).
Entomol Mon Mag 111, no. 1331/1333 (APR/JUNE 1975 (PUB. 1976)): 93-96.

Blackshaw-RP; Coll-C
Economically important leatherjackets of grassland and cereals: biology, impact and control.
Integrated-Pest-Management-Reviews. 1999, 4: 2, 143-160; 5 pp. of ref.
Despite the large number of cranefly species, only 2 have been convincingly associated with crop damage. The larvae of Tipula paludosa are commonly found as pests in both grassland and spring cereals whereas those of T. oleracea are only established as pests of winter cereals following crops of oilseed rape in the rotation. The latter, however, is probably the species involved in opportunistic situations involving various minor crops. These epidemiological contrasts are attributable to differences in the morphology and behaviour of the adults of the 2 species in relation to crop rotations. Larvae are sufficiently similar as to cause confusion in identification and this has hampered development of a clear picture of the ecology of the 2 species. Little is known about the distribution of T. oleracea larvae, but T. paludosa larvae are largely regulated by climatic factors, especially rainfall, although the operation of these varies across the distribution range. Many natural enemies have been identified but a commercially viable control method using them has not yet been developed for either species. Control of T. paludosa is relatively easy using broad-spectrum insecticides but inconsistent kills have been observed with winter pesticide applications against T. oleracea. Determination of those fields requiring applications in advance of the damage remains the major problem, especially in grassland and winter cereals, to be resolved for the management of leatherjacket pests.

Blackshaw-RP; Thomas-MB (ed.); Kedwards-T
Behaviour mediated population regulation?
Challenges in applied population biology, Royal Holloway, University of London, UK, 8-9 July 1999. Aspects-of-Applied-Biology. 1999, No. 53, 125-130; 14 ref.
Populations of Tipula paludosa larvae are assumed to be regulated by a shortage of rainfall causing dessication of eggs and first instars. The evidence for this was examined and it was concluded that this hypothesis does not explain all the published data. Experimental data are presented that show that larvae will move in response to changes in moisture and temperature and select particular ranges. Cannibalism is a feature of T. paludosa biology and it is proposed that outcomes of encounters between larvae depend upon the type of behaviour - aggression, passive, retreating - displayed because not all encounters are fatal. The evidence is summarized and it is postulated that some apparently density-independent effects on populations result from a combination of larval movement and behaviour and hence are, ultimately, density dependent.

Blackshaw-RP
Leatherjackets in grassland.
Strategies for weed, disease & pest control in grassland: practical implications of recent developments and future trends. Proceedings of the British Grassland Society conference held on 27 February 1991 at Hatherley Manor Hotel, Gloucester. 1991, 6.1-6.12; 40 ref.
The biology and ecology of the tipulid pests of grassland are considered in relation to their pest status in the UK. There are 5 main tipulid species (all Tipula spp.) in the UK, of which only T. paludosa and T. oleracea are recognised pests, with T. paludosa being the most important. Climatic conditions are more important to population regulation than the effects of natural enemies, but the way in which they operate varies by region. Damage to grassland starts in September and builds up over the winter and spring. Insidious losses are more important than sward destruction. Good control is easily obtained with insecticides, with minimal effect on nontarget organisms, but identification of fields that could benefit from treatment remains a problem.

Campbell, R.L.
European crane fly control in Washington, 1979 Tipula paludosa, bentgrasses.
p. 189. Publishing Agencies: US Imprint, not USDA Insecticide and acaricide tests. College Park : Entomological Society of America. 1980. v. 5

Cheshire, M.V.; Griffiths, B.S.
The influence of earthworms and cranefly larvae on the decomposition of uniformly 14C labelled plant material in soil.
The Journal of soil science. 40, no. 1 (Mar 1989): p. 117-124.

Goix, J.
Tipula paludosa, pest of crops.
p. 5-7. ill. Publishing Agencies: Non-US Imprint, not FAO Phytoma. Paris, Editions Le Carrousel. Dec 1980. (323) ISSN: 0048-4091

Green, E.I. ; Carter, J.B.
Increased hemocyte counts in Tipula paludosa (Diptera, Tipulidae) hemolymph after exposure of larvae to diethyl ether and acetic acid vapors.
Journal of invertebrate pathology. 57, no. 3 (May 1991): p. 437-438.

GUEGAN, J.
Human intestinal myiasis provoked by the Tipula paludosa larvae Meigen, 1930 (Diptera, Tipulidae) in Vendee.
Ann Parasitol Hum Comp 45, no. 2 (MAR/APR 1970): 243-246.

Hollander, J Den
The growth of larvae of Tipula oleracea Linnaeus, 1758 (DIPTERA, TIPULIDAE).
TIJDSCHR ENTOMOL 118, no. 3/4 (1975): 67-82. REF.

Hollander, J Den.
The phenology and habitat of the species of the subgenus Tipula Linnaeus in the Netherlands (Diptera, Tipulidae)
Tijdscr Entomol 118, no. 3/4 (1975): 83-97.

Hopkins, A. ; Gilbey, J.
Effects of agrochemical treatments on the yield and botanical composition of pest damaged white clover swards.
Tests of agrochemicals and cultivars. 8 (Apr 1987): p. 124-125.

Jackson, D M.
European crane fly (Tipula paludosa) an introduced pest of turf and pasture in Whatcom County, Washington.
Proc Wash State Entomol Soc (MAR 1973): 356-358.

Jackson, D M. ; Campbell, R L.
Biology of the european crane fly, Tipula paludosa Meigen, in western Wasthington (Tipulidae; Diptera)
Tech Bull Wash Agric Exp Stn 81 (JULY 1975): 23 p. map. ref. Publishing Agencies: Experiment Station

Lind-P
Managing crane flies in lawns.
Journal-of-Pesticide-Reform. 1998, 18: 4, 22-23; 17 ref.
Management methods for crane flies such as Tipula paludosa, pests of turf in North America, are considered. The biology of crane flies is outlined, detailing the larval stage which feeds on grasses. Methods to monitor crane fly populations are listed. Providing drainage, reducing irrigation, slicing and aerating are suggested as physical and mechanical control methods. Appropriate varieties of grass, such as rye grass [Lolium perenne], can reduce crane fly problems. Biological control agents, including Steinernema carpocapsae and S. feltiae, are considered. The value of ground beetles [Carabidae] and birds as natural enemies is considered.

Meats, A.
The developmental dynamics of Tipula paludosa and the relation of climate to its growth pattern and flight season.
Ent. exp. & appl. 1975, 19: 312-320.

Meats, A.
A population model for two species of Tipula (Diptera, Nematocera) derived from data on their physiological relations with their environment.
Oecologia 1974, 16: 119-138.

Meats, A.
Simulation of the population trends of Tipula paludosa using a model fed with climatological data.
Oecologia 1974, 16: 139-147.

Meats, A.
The effect of soil flooding on the survival and development of the eggs of Tipula oleracea and Tipula paludosa Meigen.
J. Ent. (A). 1972, 46: 99-102.

Meats, A.
Susceptibility of the leatherjackets Tipula oleracea and Tipula paludosa to soil flooding.
Ann appl. Biol. 1970, 65: 25-38.

Meats, A.
The effect of exposure to unsaturated air on the survival and development of eggs of Tipula oleracea and Tipula paludosa Meigen.
Proc. R. Ent. Soc. Lond. (A)., 1968, 43: 85-88.

Meats, A.
The relation between survival and water loss in larvae of Tipula oleracea and Tipula paludosa (Diptera) on exposure to unsaturated air.
J. Insect Physiol. 1967, 13: 1119-1131.

Meats, A.
The relation between soil-water tension and growth rate of larvae of Tipula oleracea and Tipula paludosa (Diptera) in turf.
Ent. exp. & appl. 1967, 19: 312-320.

Meats, A.
The relation between soil-water tension and rate of development of the eggs of Tipula oleracea and Tipula paludosa (Diptera).
Ent exp. & appl. 1967, 19: 394-400.

Morris,-R.F.
Notes on an unusual habitat for overwintering European crane fly larvae (Diptera: Tipulidae) in Newfoundland.
Can-Entomol. Ottawa : Entomological Society of Canada. Nov 1986. v. 118 (11) p. 1205-1206. plates.

Myers, J.H. ; Iyer, R.
Phenotypic and genetic characteristics of the European cranefly Tipula paludosa following its introduction and spread in western North America.
p. 519-532. ill. Publishing Agencies: Non-US Imprint, not FAO The Journal of animal ecology. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications. June 1981. v. 50 (2) ISSN: 0021-8790

Pennell, J T.
The European crane fly [Tipula paludosa]: A lawn pest
Washington State University Cooperative Extension Service. EM Coop Ext Serv Coll Agric Wash State Univ 3478 (JULY 1976): 2 p. Publishing Agencies: Extension Service

Pritchard, G.
The growth of Tipula larvae with particular reference to the head capsule (Diptera: Tipulidae).
p. 2646-2651. ill. Publishing Agencies: Non-US Imprint, not FAO Canadian journal of zoology = Journal canadien de zoologie. Ottawa : National Research Council of Canada. Nov 1982. v. 60 (11) ISSN: 0008-4301

Pritchard, G. ; Stewart, M.
How cranefly larvae breathe Tipula paludosa.
p. 310-317. Publishing Agencies: Non-US Imprint, not FAO Canadian journal of zoology = Journal canadien de zoologie. Ottawa, National Research Council of Canada. Mar 1982. v. 60 (3) ISSN: 0008-4301

Ricou, G.
Production of Tipula paludosa MEIG. in meadows in function of soil humidity.
Rev Ecol Biol Sol 12,, no. 1, SPECIAL NO. (JAN 1975): 69-89. ENG. SUM.

Ro, A.I.; Nilsson, D.E.
Circadian and light-dependent control of the pupil mechanism in tipulid flies.
Journal of insect physiology. 40, no. 10 (Oct 1994): p. 883-891.
Infrared reflectometry of the deep pseudopupil was used for measuring the absolute sensitivity and the dynamics of the pupil mechanism in the acone apposition eye of tipulid flies. The following species were studied: Tipula luteipennis, T. fusca, T. pagana, T. paludosa and T. staegeri. Pupil responses plotted against light intensity produced S-shaped R/log I curves that were fitted by Lipetz equations with I50-values (intensity corresponding to 50% of the maximal response) ranging between 10(17.4) and 10(20.2) photons m-2 str-1 s-1. The sensitivity of the pupil is considerably higher (1-2 log units) during daytime than at night in all examined species. Differences in the sensitivity between different tipulid species are explained by the different light intensities in their natural environment. The dynamic range of the pupil mechanism is exceptionally large. In T. luteipennis, the pupil operates over a total range of about 8.5 log units of light intensity. This implies that the pupil mechanism of T. luteipennis is functional at light intensities ranging from bright sunlight down to moonlight. The speed of the pupillary movements are slower at night than during the day. During daytime, light adaptation is completed in about 30 min and dark adaptation in about 50 min. At night, the corresponding values are 45 and 60 min. The differences in speed and sensitivity of the pupil mechanism between day and night are due to a circadian rhythm, setting the control range of the pupil aperture.

Stewart, M. ; Pritchard, G.
Pharate phases in Tipula paludosa (Diptera: Tipulidae) Metamorphic stage, insects.
p. 275-278. ill. Publishing Agencies: Non-US Imprint, not FAO Canadian entomologist. Ottawa, Entomological Society of Canada. Mar 1982. v. 114 (3) ISSN: 0008-347X

Todd-CM; Block-W
A comparison of the cold hardiness attributes in larvae of four species of Diptera.
Cryo-letters. 1995, 16: 3, 137-146; 25 ref.
Cold hardiness attributes in larvae of 4 species of Diptera, 3 upland species from the genus Tipula (including T. montana and T. paludosa) and 1 from the genus Bibio from a lowland habitat were investigated. This was done by measuring the supercooling point (temperature of crystallisation), assessing survival after freezing, and determining body water content and concentrations of polyols and sugars of larval samples. All the species exhibited a limited supercooling capacity, with mean supercooling points ranging from -3.7°C in Bibio marci to -5.5°C in Tipula excisa. The body water content ranged from 78% in B. marci to 89% of fresh weight in the Tipula species, and low concentrations of sugars and polyols (potential cryoprotectants) were found in all species. The larvae of the Tipula species exhibited freeze tolerance whereas those of B. marci were freezing intolerant. It is postulated that the latter may avoid freezing situations by behavioural methods.
Traynier, R M M. ; Burton, D J.
Male response to females in the marsh crane fly, Tipula paludosa MG. (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Entomol Soc Brit Columbia J (OCT 1, 1970): 21-22.

Unknown.
Leatherjackets. [Tipula paludosa, biological control (insects), Sipona geniculata]
Butter-fat 48, no. 1 (JAN/FEB 1970): 5-7.

Unknown
Leatherjackets [Tipula Paludosa, field crop pests].
Advis Leafl G B Minist Agric Fish Food (1975)

Vlug-HJ
Feeding behaviour of tipulid larvae on grass.
Mededelingen-van-de-Faculteit-Landbouwwetenschappen,-Rijksuniversiteit-Gent. 1990, 55: 2b, 545-547; 3 ref.
Experiments with Tipula oleracea indicated that 1st-instar larvae fed on the young leaves of Lolium perenne. Older larvae fed at the base of stems and roots, and sometimes cut the grass stems and pulled them down into their holes to eat them. When larvae were dissected at regular intervals to examine the gut contents, 62% of the guts contained chlorophyll, 5% root fragments, and 28% both root and stem fragments. First-instar larvae feeding only on root mass died in 1 week, whereas most larvae feeding on leaf tissues reached their final stage. This paper was presented at the International Symposium on Crop Protection in May 1990 in Ghent, Belgium.

Vlug, H.J. ; Harrewijn, P.
Analysis of gut contents and feeding behavior of tipulid larvae (Diptera: Tipulidae) using a new root-staining technique.
Journal of economic entomology. 87, no. 1 (Feb 1994): p. 101-102.
To determine whether first-instar Tipula oleracea L. preferentially feed on either grass roots or leaves, we developed a differential staining technique for grass roots. A 0.15% aqueous solution of trypan-blue stained the root-system of ryegrass sufficiently to identify root tissue in the gut system of leatherjackets. It did not stain leaf tissue of the same plants. Using stained grass plants, it was shown that young larvae of T. oleracea in grasslands preferentially feed on leaf tissue and not on root tissue as previously assumed.

Wal, D van der.
Fighting larvae in the pasture. [Tipula paludosa].
Bedrijfsontwikkeling 3, no. 10 (OCT 1972): 915-916.

Wilkinson, A T S.
Tipula paludosa (MEIG.), european crane fly (Diptera: Tipulidae).
Commonwealth Inst Biol Contr Tech Commun (1971): 54-57. MAP. REF.

Wilkinson, A.T.S. and H.R. MacCarthy
The marsh crane fly, Tipula paludosa Mg., a new pest in British Columbia (Diptera: Tipulidae).
J. Entomol. Soc. Brit. Col. 1967, 64: 29-34.

Young-CW; Onore-G; Proano-K
First occurrence of Tipula (Tipula) oleracea Linnaeus (Diptera: Tipulidae) in the New World, with biological notes.
Journal-of-the-Kansas-Entomological-Society. 1999, 72: 2, 226-232; 20 ref.
Tipula (Tipula) oleracea Linnaeus, a species native to the Old World, is first recorded from Ecuador (South America). The local habitat for adults and immatures is reported. The last instar larva and pupa are described and illustrated. Modes for introduction of this economically important species into the Neotropical Region are discussed. Accidental introduction of larvae in soil associated with horticultural imports from Europe is considered likely.

Zapol'Skaia, T I.
Ecology and pre-imaginal phase of development of Tipula paludosa and Tipula czizeki.
In Voprosy Entomologii Pagination: P. 24-31. 1974.

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